These findings not only deepen our understanding of lunar evolution but also provide critical clues to Earth's early solar system environment. Using advanced techniques to examine moon rocks collected over half a century ago, scientists are uncovering the moon’s geologic past and its connection to Earth's history.

Apollo 16 Samples Act As a Time Capsule of Lunar Impacts

Researchers from the University of Glasgow and the University of Manchester have meticulously re-analyzed lunar samples collected during the Apollo 16 mission in 1972. These samples, specifically regolith breccias, were formed when asteroid impacts fused lunar soil into rock. Acting like "geological time capsules," these breccias preserve a record of the moon's surface at the time of their formation, helping scientists reconstruct the moon’s impact history.

Using mass spectrometry to examine trapped noble gases such as argon and xenon, the team discovered how long these samples were exposed to the solar wind before being buried by subsequent asteroid impacts. Dr. Mark Nottingham, who led the research, explained, “Mass spectrometry... can help us determine how much time the samples spent exposed on or near the moon’s surface. That helps give us a clearer idea of the history of impacts on this particular area of the moon.”

The results revealed a complex history of asteroid bombardments stretching over billions of years. Some of the samples date back more than 2.5 billion years, while others appear to have been affected by impacts as recently as 1 billion years ago. These findings allow scientists to piece together how asteroid collisions shaped the moon’s landscape over time. As Dr. Nottingham noted, “The moon’s history is the Earth’s history too—the record of asteroid bombardments etched on its face can help us understand the conditions of the early solar system which formed our planet as well as its closest neighbor.”

The South Pole-Aitken Basin: A Record of the Moon’s Most Ancient Impact

On the lunar far side, the South Pole-Aitken (SPA) basin—the largest and oldest known impact basin—has long intrigued scientists. Spanning approximately 2,500 kilometers (1,600 miles) in diameter, this vast crater has helped researchers unlock some of the moon’s most ancient secrets. However, accurately dating the SPA basin has remained a challenge, with estimates ranging from 4.2 to 4.3 billion years. A new study, published in Nature Astronomy, has provided a more precise date of 4.33 billion years, making it one of the oldest confirmed lunar impacts.

This impact event, which occurred during a period of intense bombardment in the inner solar system, is believed to have been caused by a massive object—likely an asteroid around 200 kilometers (124 miles) in diameter, far larger than the impactor that caused the extinction of the dinosaurs on Earth. The study, led by Professor Katherine Joy from the University of Manchester, used radiometric dating techniques to analyze a lunar meteorite, NWA 2995, believed to have originated from the SPA basin. This meteorite’s age aligns with the ancient history of the South Pole-Aitken basin, allowing scientists to pinpoint the event more accurately.

Dr. Romain Tartese, co-author of the study, emphasized the importance of this discovery: “The implications of our findings reach far beyond the Moon. We know that the Earth and the Moon likely experienced similar impacts during their early history, but rock records from the Earth have been lost.” Because Earth’s geological activity, such as plate tectonics and erosion, has erased much of its own early impact record, the relatively unchanged surface of the moon offers a crucial window into these formative events.

Implications for Future Lunar Missions and Earth’s History

These studies have far-reaching implications for future lunar exploration, particularly for NASA’s Artemis program and other upcoming missions. By better understanding the moon’s impact history, scientists can not only track its evolution but also locate valuable resources like noble gases and other elements that could aid in the sustainability of future lunar bases.

Dr. Nottingham highlighted this potential: “One of the challenges of establishing long-term habitats for humans on the moon is making decisions about how we can use the natural resources which await future missions so they don’t have to carry everything they’ll need with them from Earth.” These findings could directly inform how astronauts of the Artemis program and beyond plan long-term lunar stays, enabling them to exploit natural resources such as water and noble gases.

In addition to aiding future exploration, these studies provide critical insights into Earth’s early solar system environment. The moon’s surface offers a preserved record of asteroid impacts that shaped not only the lunar surface but also Earth’s. As Dr. Joshua Snape from the University of Manchester stated, “Constraining the age of the South-Pole Aitken basin to 120 million years earlier weakens the argument for this narrow period of impact bombardment on the Moon and instead indicates there was a more gradual process of impacts over a longer period.”

The confirmation of a 4.33-billion-year-old impact event in the SPA basin challenges the long-standing theory of a concentrated “late heavy bombardment” period between 4.2 and 3.8 billion years ago. Instead, it points to a more extended and varied history of asteroid impacts. Future lunar missions, such as China’s Chang’e-6 and NASA’s Endurance-A rover, could further refine this timeline by collecting samples from the SPA basin and conducting additional radiometric analyses.

A shared past: connecting lunar and Earth History

The findings from both the Apollo 16 samples and the SPA basin meteorites remind us that the histories of the moon and Earth are deeply intertwined. Both celestial bodies experienced a similar bombardment from asteroids during their early history. While Earth’s active geology has obscured much of its ancient past, the moon has preserved these records, offering us a glimpse into the violent processes that shaped the early solar system and influenced the conditions under which life eventually arose on Earth.

As these studies show, even decades-old lunar samples still have secrets to reveal, and ongoing lunar exploration will likely continue to expand our understanding of both our nearest celestial neighbor and our own planet.

New research from the University of Bristol has demonstrated the potential of remotely controlled robots in successfully simulating tasks like scooping and manipulating moon dust—a vital material that will be central to building future habitats on the moon.

Using cutting-edge technology, scientists at Bristol’s School of Engineering Mathematics and Technology carried out tests at the European Space Agency’s (ESA) European Centre for Space Applications and Telecommunications (ESCAT).

Remote Robotics Tackle Moon Dust Challenges

One of the biggest challenges of future moon missions is the handling of lunar regolith, commonly known as moon dust. This material is abrasive and electrostatically charged, making it difficult to manage. The University of Bristol's research team successfully demonstrated how teleoperated robots can be used to scoop, transport, and manipulate this vital material in a simulated environment, helping prepare for future missions like NASA’s Artemis Program and the ESA’s Moon Village initiative.

Using a haptic feedback system, the robotic arm provided teleoperators with a realistic sense of touch, simulating the low gravity of the moon and the tactile experience of moving lunar soil. As Joe Louca, the project’s lead researcher, explained, “We can adjust how strong gravity is in this model and provide haptic feedback, so we could give astronauts a sense of how moon dust would feel and behave in lunar conditions.”

This innovative feedback system allowed operators to feel how much force was needed to scoop and press into the regolith simulant. These realistic tactile interactions make the system highly accurate for simulating the difficult conditions astronauts and robotic missions will face on the moon. According to Louca, “The model predicted the outcome of a regolith scooping task with sufficient accuracy to be considered effective and trustworthy 100% of the time.”

Preparing for the Future of Lunar Exploration

These teleoperation experiments are part of a broader movement towards using robotic systems to assist astronauts and unmanned missions on the lunar surface. The simulation tools developed at the University of Bristol are expected to provide significant cost-saving benefits. Traditionally, lunar construction and resource extraction tests have required expensive physical simulants and access to high-end research facilities. However, this new simulation system allows developers and space agencies to conduct preliminary tests without the need for real lunar regolith.

As Louca noted, the model could also be used for astronaut training, providing a realistic virtual experience before crews embark on their lunar missions. “This simulation could be a valuable tool to support preparation or operation for these missions,” he said. The technology has the potential to serve not only as a training ground for upcoming Artemis missions but also as a tool for developing robotic systems capable of resource extraction on the moon.

Lunar Resource Utilization and Future Missions

The ability to teleoperate robots remotely is expected to play a crucial role in In-Situ Resource Utilization (ISRU), the process of using local resources to support human activities on the moon. Lunar regolith contains valuable components like oxygen and water, which could be extracted to provide life support for astronauts and fuel for spacecraft. Teleoperated robots would be essential for safely handling these resources in the moon's harsh environment, reducing the need for humans to perform risky tasks.

As space agencies prepare for crew missions to the moon in the coming decade, including NASA’s Artemis Program and China’s Chang’e Program, teleoperated robotics and simulations like those developed by the University of Bristol will play a vital role in ensuring that these missions are safe, efficient, and cost-effective. By advancing the field of remote operations, the groundwork is being laid for the construction of permanent lunar bases, which could one day support long-term human habitation and scientific research on the moon.

With teleoperated systems proving to be highly efficient, future missions will be better equipped to handle the moon dust, extract resources, and construct infrastructure that will enable humanity to thrive beyond Earth. “In the next decade, we’re going to see several crewed and uncrewed missions to the moon,” Louca said, “and this simulation will be a valuable tool in preparing for them.”

Unveiled at the International Astronautical Congress in Milan, the program aims to establish a comprehensive lunar telecommunications and navigation network. This ambitious plan is set to support over 400 planned lunar missions in the next two decades, marking a major step toward building a sustainable lunar economy and advancing future space exploration.

Building a Lunar Communication and Navigation Network

The Moonlight program aims to create a constellation of five lunar satellites that will enable precise landings and high-speed communication between Earth and the Moon. This network will be essential for space agencies and private companies as they plan to explore and utilize the lunar surface. ESA’s Director General Josef Aschbacher highlighted the importance of this development, saying, "ESA is taking the crucial step in supporting the future commercial lunar market, as well as ongoing and future lunar missions."

The first phase of this plan includes the launch of Lunar Pathfinder, a communications relay satellite developed by Surrey Satellite Technology Ltd (SSTL), which is scheduled for 2026. Lunar Pathfinder will provide critical communication services and test navigation satellites for lunar use. After this initial deployment, Moonlight’s services are expected to begin by 2028, with full operations slated for 2030. The goal is to establish a reliable communication and navigation system that will streamline mission planning and reduce costs.

Targeting the Lunar South Pole

One of the key focuses of the Moonlight program is the lunar south pole, an area that has become a focal point for exploration. The region’s unique conditions, such as permanent sunlight and shadowed craters that may contain water ice, make it a prime candidate for long-term lunar habitation. ESA and its partners plan to prioritize coverage in this area to support future exploration and resource extraction.

Javier Benedicto, ESA’s Director of Navigation, emphasized the program’s significance: “The Moonlight [agreement] we are signing today is the backbone of the future navigation system around and on the surface of the Moon.” The constellation's coverage of the south pole will deliver essential data to astronauts and robotic explorers, helping optimize surface operations and exploration efficiency.

This strategic focus aligns with NASA’s Artemis program, which aims to return astronauts to the Moon and establish a sustainable human presence. ESA’s collaboration in the Artemis Gateway project underscores Europe’s commitment to international lunar exploration. In addition, ESA’s Argonaut spacecraft, set to land on the Moon in 2031, further emphasizes the agency’s long-term vision for lunar exploration.

Collaboration with Global Partners

The Moonlight program is a joint effort involving key international partners, such as NASA and Japan’s Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA). These partnerships are critical for ensuring that the Moonlight infrastructure is compatible with other global lunar systems. One key element of this collaboration is the LunaNet framework, which sets communication and navigation standards for future lunar systems.

“ESA is proud to be working with industry and member states to ensure that our technological capabilities can support and foster cooperation on the Moon,” said Aschbacher. Through the LunaNet framework, Moonlight will establish a globally compatible network, with the first lunar navigation interoperability tests set for 2029. These collaborative efforts aim to create a robust foundation for future missions and generate commercial opportunities in cislunar space.

Telespazio, a leading space systems developer, is a major industrial partner in the Moonlight program. Gabriele Pieralli, CEO of Telespazio, stressed the importance of this collaboration, saying, "Leading a prestigious pan-European team, Telespazio is committed to creating the conditions for a stable and secure presence on the Moon while simultaneously opening up extraordinary commercial opportunities for Europe."

Expanding Beyond the Moon: Mars Communication and Navigation

ESA’s ambitions go beyond lunar exploration. The agency is already planning for future Mars missions and is laying the groundwork for the Mars Communication and Navigation Infrastructure (MARCONI). The experience and technology gained from the Moonlight program will be critical in developing this infrastructure, which will support future human exploration of the Red Planet.

By leveraging the knowledge and innovations from Moonlight, ESA hopes to contribute to a multi-planetary future. The Mars infrastructure will provide essential communication and navigation services for Mars missions and offer valuable insights into how technologies perform in extraterrestrial environments.

A Vision for the Future of Space Exploration

The Moonlight program represents a significant milestone in ESA’s role in future space exploration. By creating a dedicated lunar communication and navigation infrastructure, ESA is taking a critical step toward building a sustainable lunar economy. As Dr. Paul Bate, Chief Executive of the UK Space Agency, noted, “The growth of a commercial lunar economy can bring real benefits back to Earth.”

With strong support from industrial and institutional partners, the Moonlight program is set to revolutionize lunar exploration. As ESA continues to collaborate with international partners and develop cutting-edge technologies, it is laying the foundation for the next era of space exploration—one that will see humanity not only return to the Moon but also expand its reach to Mars and beyond.

This mission would represent a pivotal moment in space exploration, building upon decades of robotic exploration that has laid the groundwork for human presence on Mars. The Artemis program, which aims to return humans to the Moon by the mid-2020s, serves as a critical stepping stone, preparing astronauts for the unique challenges of long-duration missions to Mars. NASA's motivation is clear: the potential for groundbreaking discoveries, including whether life—either past or present—ever existed on Mars.

Uncovering Mars’ Ancient Geological History

The surface of Mars offers tantalizing clues about the planet’s ancient past, with landscapes that suggest Mars was once home to abundant liquid water. Approximately 3.8 billion years ago, Mars likely had a climate that could support lakes, rivers, and possibly oceans. Today, however, the planet is cold and dry, with water mostly locked away as ice at its poles or hidden beneath its surface. Understanding how Mars lost its water and its once-thick atmosphere is crucial to piecing together the story of the planet’s evolution. NASA’s human mission to Mars seeks to answer these questions by allowing astronauts to conduct in-depth geological fieldwork, something robotic missions can only achieve to a limited extent.

The planet’s geology is as diverse as it is mysterious. Mars hosts the largest volcano in the solar system, Olympus Mons, and features vast canyon systems like Valles Marineris. These massive geological formations tell a story of ancient volcanic activity and tectonic forces that shaped Mars’ surface. Yet many of these features are poorly understood. According to Joel S. Levine, an atmospheric scientist and former NASA researcher, “while robotic missions can provide valuable data, there are certain questions only a human mission can answer.” Studying these features up close could reveal critical information about Mars' geological history, including its volcanic and tectonic activity, and how these processes compare to those on Earth.

The Search for Life on Mars

One of the central goals of the upcoming mission is to search for evidence of past or present life on Mars. Billions of years ago, Earth and Mars were remarkably similar, both possessing liquid water and thick atmospheres. On Earth, these conditions led to the emergence of life, and scientists believe that the same could have been true for Mars. The question of whether microbial life existed or still exists beneath the Martian surface remains one of the biggest mysteries in planetary science.

Robotic missions like Perseverance have already begun exploring areas that might harbor biosignatures, especially ancient lakebeds and regions where water might have once flowed. However, humans are far better equipped to explore these regions in detail and make critical real-time decisions about where to search for signs of life. Astronauts could collect samples from Mars’ subsurface—an area thought to be more likely to contain evidence of life because it is less exposed to harmful radiation from the Sun. As NASA’s Artemis program prepares astronauts for living and working on Mars, the experience gained on the Moon—in terms of resource extraction and habitat building—will be essential for conducting long-term biological and geological research on Mars.

Preparing for the Journey to Mars

Sending humans to Mars involves overcoming enormous logistical and technological challenges. To tackle these, NASA has been developing the Space Launch System (SLS), a powerful rocket designed to carry heavy payloads, and the Orion spacecraft, which will transport astronauts on deep space missions. The Artemis program, currently focused on returning humans to the Moon, is crucial for testing these systems and preparing astronauts for the lengthy journey to Mars. The Artemis III mission, scheduled for 2026, will bring humans back to the lunar surface for the first time since the Apollo era. It will serve as a proving ground, where astronauts will practice living in isolated, harsh environments, which will mirror conditions on Mars.

The journey to Mars itself is expected to take around six to seven months, covering approximately 250 million miles each way, depending on planetary alignment. Once on Mars, astronauts will likely spend up to 500 days on the planet’s surface, conducting a wide range of scientific investigations. They will need to rely on resource extraction technologies to produce water, oxygen, and even fuel from subsurface ice deposits, ensuring their survival in Mars’ inhospitable environment. Learning how to live off the land will be critical not just for this mission but for the future of interplanetary exploration.

The Future of Interplanetary Exploration

NASA’s planned mission to Mars represents a giant leap in humanity’s journey to understand our solar system. By investigating Mars' ancient climate, geology, and potential habitability, scientists hope to gain insights into whether Mars ever supported life and what that could mean for the broader search for life beyond Earth.

The discoveries made by astronauts on Mars could lay the foundation for future missions, potentially leading to permanent human settlements on the red planet and beyond. This mission will not only expand our scientific understanding of Mars but also mark humanity’s first step toward interplanetary exploration.

A Closer Look at the Mission

This upcoming flight will test not only the Starship upper stage but also the Super Heavy booster, which will attempt an ambitious new landing procedure. While previous tests have seen the booster splash down in the Gulf of Mexico, this time, SpaceX plans for the booster to return to its Starbase launch site in Texas, where a pair of mechanical arms — part of a tower dubbed “Mechazilla” — will attempt to catch it mid-air. This move is a key part of SpaceX’s long-term plan to make Starship fully reusable.

Bill Gerstenmaier, SpaceX’s vice president for build and flight reliability, expressed optimism about the maneuver, noting that the company has already achieved impressive landing accuracy in previous tests. “We landed with half a centimeter accuracy in the ocean,” Gerstenmaier said, indicating confidence that they might succeed in catching the booster with the launch tower. However, SpaceX has emphasized that thousands of system criteria must be met for the catch to proceed, and if conditions aren’t right, the booster may still splash down in the ocean as a backup.

NASA’s Interest in Starship and Artemis

NASA’s enthusiasm for the test flight stems from Starship’s pivotal role in its Artemis missions, particularly Artemis 3, which aims to return astronauts to the lunar surface for the first time in decades. A specialized version of Starship will serve as the lunar lander, known as the Human Landing System (HLS). This makes the success of the Starship program essential for NASA’s broader goals of sustainable lunar exploration and, eventually, crewed missions to Mars.

The upcoming test is part of a larger strategy to ensure that SpaceX can meet the demands of these lunar missions. One of the key challenges ahead is demonstrating the capability for propellant transfer in space, a complex procedure that will be vital for refueling the Starship lunar lander in orbit before it embarks on its journey to the Moon. SpaceX plans to create a propellant depot in Earth’s orbit, supplied by multiple Starship launches, to fuel the lunar lander. "We’ve got to be able to demonstrate that they can do that effectively and that they understand any nuances associated with that," Glaze explained, referring to the upcoming propellant transfer demonstration.

NASA is closely monitoring these developments, recognizing that SpaceX’s progress will significantly impact the timeline for future Artemis missions. Successful propellant transfers, along with the booster recovery, will be essential steps in preparing Starship for its role in the Artemis 3 mission.

Regulatory Hurdles and FAA Approval

Although SpaceX announced that they were targeting an October 13 launch date, regulatory approval from the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) remains a potential roadblock. Earlier reports indicated that the FAA might not be able to issue a launch license until November due to concerns about the environmental impact of the mission’s changes.

Starship’s fifth flight test is preparing to launch as soon as October 13, pending regulatory approval → https://t.co/hibmw2lVv1 pic.twitter.com/Suw1kKLHiE

— SpaceX (@SpaceX) October 7, 2024

However, recent updates suggest that the regulatory review process has been moving faster than anticipated. The FAA’s approval is contingent on its ongoing review of the environmental effects of the updated flight profile, which now covers a larger area than previously examined. SpaceX provided the necessary information in mid-August, and the FAA will make a final decision once all licensing requirements have been met.

An FAA official mentioned that the agency is reviewing the new data, and while no fixed date for approval has been confirmed, there is optimism that the licensing process could be completed in time to support an October 13 launch. Should there be any delays, SpaceX is prepared to adapt, but the company and NASA are eager for the flight to proceed as soon as possible.

What’s Next for Starship?

The fifth test flight is a crucial step for SpaceX as it continues refining Starship’s capabilities. Beyond the technical milestones, NASA and SpaceX are focused on the rate of Starship launches needed to support the propellant depot strategy. Bill Gerstenmaier indicated that the company expects to conduct 16 propellant transfers for a single lunar mission, a challenging but achievable goal.

NASA and industry observers are closely watching SpaceX’s progress, recognizing that this unorthodox approach to space exploration could redefine how the U.S. tackles long-term goals like lunar bases and missions to Mars. “We’ve all been watching SpaceX. They work a little differently from traditional industry,” Glaze noted, underscoring the unique pace and style of SpaceX’s development.

As SpaceX ramps up production with the construction of a second launch tower at Starbase and explores launch possibilities from Florida, the coming months will be critical for testing and refining the Starship system. Both NASA and SpaceX are optimistic that these next tests will pave the way for Starship’s role in human space exploration, ushering in a new era of reusable spacecraft capable of deep space missions.

Regulatory Hurdles: FAA Licensing Delays and Progress

SpaceX has been ready to proceed with the IFT-5 test since August, but the company has faced ongoing delays related to obtaining the necessary launch license from the FAA. The regulatory process, which includes coordination with partner agencies such as the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, has been a sticking point, particularly with regard to environmental concerns. SpaceX previously criticized the FAA for what it deemed "superfluous environmental analysis" that contributed to extended delays. In a statement last month, the FAA indicated that a license might not be issued until late November, causing frustration within SpaceX.

However, recent progress suggests that the regulatory bottleneck may be easing. According to sources, the FAA has accelerated its review process, and SpaceX now believes that the flight "could launch as soon as October 13, pending regulatory approval." While SpaceX remains optimistic, it has acknowledged that the license could still be delayed if any unforeseen issues arise. The FAA itself remains cautious, stating only that "the FAA will make a licensing determination once SpaceX has met all licensing requirements."

Given that Starship’s success is critical to both SpaceX and NASA’s future missions, the regulatory hurdles have become a significant point of contention. Elon Musk has been vocal about his frustrations with the pace of the process, emphasizing the importance of streamlined regulations to allow for more rapid innovation in spaceflight.

Ambitious Goals for Starship IFT-5

The IFT-5 flight is one of the most ambitious tests yet for SpaceX’s Starship. Starship is a two-stage, fully reusable spacecraft designed to carry both crew and cargo to deep space destinations, including the Moon and Mars. The upcoming test will not only involve launching the Super Heavy booster and Starship spacecraft but also attempt new and challenging maneuvers that are critical to SpaceX’s long-term goals.

A key objective of this test flight will be to attempt the first-ever Super Heavy booster return and catch at the launch site. After separation from the Starship upper stage, the 232-foot-tall Super Heavy booster will fly back to the launch site in Texas, aiming to land between two “chopsticks” on the tower—an audacious attempt at mid-air recovery. If successful, this maneuver would mark a significant milestone in SpaceX’s pursuit of making Starship fully reusable. SpaceX has highlighted the complexity of this feat, stating that it requires "thousands of criteria to be met," and that the catch will only be attempted if all conditions are ideal.

The upper stage of Starship, following its separation from the booster, is slated to reenter Earth’s atmosphere and splash down in the Indian Ocean. The reentry and landing burn will provide critical data on the spacecraft’s thermal protection systems, which have been significantly upgraded since the last test flight.

SpaceX engineers have invested more than 12,000 hours reworking Starship’s heatshield to withstand the extreme conditions of atmospheric reentry. This includes a new generation of thermal protection tiles, a backup ablative layer, and additional reinforcements around the vehicle’s flap structures. These upgrades are designed to increase Starship’s durability and enable a smoother reentry, with the goal of achieving a successful soft landing in the target zone.

Importance of Starship IFT-5 for SpaceX's Vision

The IFT-5 mission is far more than just another test flight—it’s a critical stepping stone in SpaceX’s broader ambition to revolutionize space travel. The Starship system is at the core of SpaceX’s Mars colonization plans and is also a crucial part of NASA’s Artemis program, which aims to return humans to the Moon and establish a sustainable presence there by the end of the decade.

SpaceX has already secured a multi-billion-dollar contract with NASA to use Starship as a crewed lunar lander for future Artemis missions, and the outcome of the IFT-5 test will play a vital role in determining the spacecraft’s readiness for these missions. Elon Musk has repeatedly stated that the development of a fully reusable spacecraft is essential for reducing the cost of space travel and enabling large-scale missions to Mars and beyond.

In an ideal scenario, IFT-5 would demonstrate Starship’s ability to launch, recover the booster, and perform a successful reentry. This test is a crucial part of SpaceX’s efforts to refine the vehicle’s design and make the necessary improvements for future crewed missions. Musk has set ambitious targets, indicating that the first uncrewed test flights to Mars could occur as soon as 2026, with the first crewed missions following in 2028. Achieving these goals will depend heavily on the success of ongoing test flights like IFT-5.

Looking Forward: The Future of Starship and Space Travel

SpaceX’s Starship represents the pinnacle of innovation in the space industry, and the outcome of IFT-5 will be closely watched by space agencies, industry experts, and enthusiasts alike. If SpaceX can successfully execute the booster catch, splashdown, and other mission objectives, it will mark a major leap forward in proving the viability of fully reusable spacecraft. This would not only lower the cost of future space missions but also make large-scale exploration of the Moon, Mars, and other destinations more feasible.

However, the path forward remains contingent on regulatory approval and the successful execution of increasingly complex test flights. The FAA's licensing decision will be a major factor in determining whether IFT-5 can proceed on Sunday as planned, or whether SpaceX will face further delays. While SpaceX remains optimistic, there is no guarantee that the test will go forward this week. As the company continues to push the boundaries of what’s possible in space travel, each test represents an opportunity to learn and refine the technology that could eventually carry humans to Mars.

As the space industry continues to evolve, SpaceX’s Starship program stands at the forefront of the movement toward reusable, sustainable space travel. With each test flight, SpaceX inches closer to making Musk’s vision of interplanetary colonization a reality, laying the groundwork for a future where humans are a multi-planetary species.

This innovative camera, specifically designed for lunar exploration, aims to play a vital role in documenting the Moon's surface and aiding astronauts in their exploration tasks. The training, which took place in Lanzarote, Spain, simulated the rugged and extreme environments astronauts will face on the lunar surface, providing valuable insights into how the camera will perform during real missions.

Building a Camera for the Moon’s Harsh Environment

The design of the HULC camera reflects the unique challenges of operating on the Moon. Unlike Earth, the Moon's environment is characterized by extreme temperature variations and lack of atmosphere, which presents significant hurdles for any equipment deployed there. The HULC camera, based on a modified Nikon model, has been equipped with a thermal blanket developed by NASA to protect it from the severe temperature fluctuations, which can range from minus 200 to 120 degrees Celsius. This thermal protection is crucial, especially given that the camera will be used near the lunar South Pole, where the Artemis III mission is expected to land, and where large areas are in permanent shadow.

Beyond thermal protection, the camera's buttons and controls have been re-engineered to be usable by astronauts wearing thick, bulky gloves. This ergonomic redesign allows astronauts to operate the camera effectively during moonwalks, ensuring that key moments of exploration can be documented without fumbling or delays. Jeremy Myers, the lead for the HULC project at NASA, explained that these adjustments are critical to making the camera not just functional but intuitive for astronauts. "Inputs from the trainees help us refine the ergonomics and redundancy of the camera to make missions as productive as possible," Myers noted, underscoring the importance of astronaut feedback in refining the camera’s design.

Testing in Realistic Lunar-Like Conditions

The PANGAEA training provided an ideal setting for testing the HULC camera in conditions that closely mimic the lunar environment. Astronauts Rosemary Coogan (ESA), Arnaud Prost, and Norishige Kanai (JAXA) participated in the testing, taking the camera into volcanic caves and other rugged terrains that simulate the Moon's surface. The training allowed the camera's telephoto lenses, flash settings, and other features to be tested in low-light environments, as well as in areas with high contrast between shadowed and sunlit regions—conditions that astronauts will encounter near the lunar South Pole.

One of the key features tested during the training was the 200 mm telephoto lens, which allows astronauts to capture high-detail images from long distances. This capability is crucial for lunar exploration, where astronauts may need to assess distant geological features before deciding where to explore further. Myers highlighted the camera's performance during these tests, stating, "The camera captured a great amount of detail from a distance, something that would exceed anything that had ever been seen before on the Moon. This trial was a fantastic starting point to evaluate the level of detail future explorers could get from the camera."

Overcoming the Challenges of Low-Light Lunar Environments

The Moon’s South Pole, where the Artemis III mission is set to land, is characterized by permanently shadowed craters that never receive direct sunlight. This presents a major challenge for capturing clear images. To address this, the HULC camera was designed to perform well in low-light conditions. During the PANGAEA tests, astronauts took images inside dark caves in Lanzarote to simulate these shadowed lunar environments. The camera’s flash settings were also put to the test, proving essential for illuminating dark areas where sunlight cannot reach.

The performance of the flash system and its ability to work seamlessly with the telephoto lens provided promising results. Myers emphasized the importance of these tests, noting that "we used a flash for the first time in a lava tube with Norishige Kanai, who has been to the International Space Station and was familiar with the challenges of taking pictures during spacewalks." These low-light tests are critical, as clear, detailed images are necessary for both scientific documentation and navigation on the Moon’s surface.

Addressing Usability in Space Suits

Operating equipment in the harsh conditions of space is complicated by the fact that astronauts must wear bulky space suits. This makes the usability of tools like the HULC camera a key concern. To ensure that astronauts can operate the camera effectively, even while wearing thick gloves, the camera’s buttons and controls have been carefully redesigned. Additionally, during the training, astronauts tested an eyepiece as an alternative to the camera’s back screen. This addition was particularly useful in scenarios where using a screen would be impractical due to glare or the limited mobility imposed by a space suit.

The feedback provided by the astronauts during these tests was instrumental in refining the camera's design. "The human factor is always the most important when developing tools for space exploration," said Myers. He added that the insights from the astronauts allowed the team to improve the camera’s ergonomics, ensuring that it would be easy to handle during moonwalks.

Communication and Bandwidth Challenges

One of the critical challenges during lunar exploration will be maintaining clear communication between astronauts on the surface and mission control on Earth. The PANGAEA training simulated potential communication issues, including signal loss, which could be expected during real lunar missions. Astronauts tested the camera’s ability to select and transmit specific images back to mission control when full data transmission wasn’t possible. This selective transmission feature is essential for prioritizing key images when bandwidth is limited.

Myers reflected on the importance of these tests, stating, "We spent a lot of time in the lab with the camera, thinking about what the challenges could be, but only when we test it in a realistic scenario, can we broaden our perspective and improve the design." These real-world trials are crucial to ensuring that the HULC camera can function optimally under the challenging conditions of the Moon, where quick decisions about which images to send back to Earth could make a significant difference.

Paving the Way for Artemis III and Beyond

As NASA and ESA prepare for the Artemis III mission, the HULC camera is poised to become an indispensable tool for astronauts on the Moon. The camera’s ability to operate in extreme temperatures, capture detailed images in low-light environments, and adapt to the limitations of astronauts wearing space suits makes it a crucial piece of equipment for future lunar exploration.

As part of ongoing preparation, the Artemis crew will continue to test training units of the camera in 2025. The lessons learned from these tests will inform further refinements, ensuring that the camera is fully optimized by the time it is deployed on the lunar surface.

Ultimately, the goal of these efforts is to equip astronauts with the best possible tools for exploring and documenting the Moon, contributing to a deeper understanding of lunar geology and enabling the success of NASA’s ambitious goals for the Artemis program. "At the end of the day, we all want to end up with the best product—a space-rated camera that will capture amazing Moon pictures for humankind," Myers concluded, reflecting on the collaborative nature of the development process.

Historic Achievement for NASA's Crawler-transporter

NASA’s crawler-transporter 2 achieved a significant milestone during its latest operation, reaching over 2,500 miles traveled since its construction in 1965. Weighing approximately 6.65 million pounds and larger than a baseball infield, the crawler is certified by Guinness World Records as the heaviest self-powered vehicle in the world. It has played a pivotal role in NASA’s space programs for nearly six decades, transporting the Saturn V rockets during the Apollo era and later supporting the Space Shuttle program.

This latest milestone was reached during the move of the mobile launcher from Launch Complex 39B to the VAB, a 4.2-mile journey that took several hours. The mobile launcher had been undergoing extensive testing and upgrades at the launch pad since August 2023 in preparation for the Artemis II mission. These upgrades included tests of the liquid hydrogen sphere, water flow systems, and emergency egress procedures, which are critical to ensuring the safety and efficiency of the upcoming lunar mission.

Artemis II Mission Preparation: What’s Next

The return of the mobile launcher to the VAB marks a significant step in NASA's timeline for the Artemis II mission. The launcher will now be integrated with the Space Launch System (SLS), NASA’s most powerful rocket, and the Orion spacecraft, which will carry the Artemis II crew. This final assembly process will take place within the VAB, a building that has long been central to NASA's human spaceflight operations.

Standing at 380 feet tall, the mobile launcher features complex systems, including power, communication, fueling, and cooling lines, all designed to support the SLS and Orion during launch. Once the integration process is complete, the mobile launcher will embark on its final journey to the launch pad for a tanking test, a key pre-launch milestone where the rocket is filled with propellant and all systems are evaluated.

The Artemis II mission, scheduled for 2024, will be NASA's first crewed flight under the Artemis program. The crew, consisting of NASA astronauts Victor Glover, Christina Koch, Reid Wiseman, and Canadian Space Agency astronaut Jeremy Hansen, will embark on a 10-day journey around the Moon, testing the spacecraft's systems and preparing for future lunar landing missions.

The Role of Artemis II in NASA’s Broader Vision

The Artemis II mission is more than just a return to the Moon; it represents a critical step in NASA’s vision for sustainable lunar exploration and beyond. The mission is part of the broader Artemis program, which aims to establish a permanent human presence on the Moon and develop the technologies necessary for future manned missions to Mars.

The success of Artemis II will be a pivotal moment in this vision. By sending astronauts into lunar orbit, NASA will gather vital data on the performance of the Orion spacecraft, ensuring its systems are fully operational before landing humans on the lunar surface with Artemis III. These missions will also test the infrastructure and procedures needed for longer-duration missions, ultimately serving as a proving ground for human exploration of deep space.

NASA’s focus is not only on exploring the lunar surface but also on creating the systems that will allow for sustainable exploration. The Lunar Gateway, a space station set to orbit the Moon, will serve as a hub for astronauts, enabling extended stays on the lunar surface and supporting future Mars missions.

A Historic Moment for Space Exploration

As NASA moves forward with Artemis II, the achievements made by the crawler-transporter and the mobile launcher underscore the significance of these missions in advancing human space exploration. The Artemis program marks the next era of human exploration, with NASA and its international partners working together to expand the boundaries of human presence in space.

The progress made in 2024 brings humanity closer to returning to the Moon, and eventually, reaching Mars. By continuing to develop and refine the technologies required for space travel, NASA is laying the foundation for future generations to explore and live beyond Earth, marking a new chapter in the quest to unlock the mysteries of the universe.

Evidence from Tidal Distortions and Gravitational Data

The Moon, like Earth, experiences tidal forces caused by gravitational interactions with our planet and the Sun. However, instead of influencing oceans, these tidal forces create physical deformations in the Moon’s surface and its gravitational field. Through precise measurements taken by the GRAIL mission and the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter, researchers were able to detect annual fluctuations in the Moon’s gravity for the first time. By analyzing these variations, scientists inferred that there must be a partially molten layer within the Moon’s deep interior. Without such a layer, the changes in gravity could not be explained by existing models of the Moon’s structure.

The study's findings align with earlier hypotheses, but this is the first time the data has provided compelling evidence of a “thick, goopy zone” deep within the Moon. The researchers noted, “Interior modeling indicates that these values can be matched only with a low-viscosity zone (LVZ) at the base of the lunar mantle.” This discovery challenges the long-standing belief that the Moon had fully cooled and solidified, suggesting that its interior is more dynamic than previously thought.

The Mysterious Molten Layer and Its Implications

The existence of this molten layer raises key questions about the Moon’s internal processes, including how this region remains partially molten. Researchers speculate that the heat may be sustained by the presence of ilmenite, a titanium-rich mineral that could be trapping heat in the Moon’s mantle. Ilmenite has been observed in lunar samples collected during the Apollo missions, and its ability to retain heat could explain how the molten zone has persisted for billions of years. The study suggests, “The presence of an LVZ at the lower base of the lunar mantle may be most readily explained by partial melt in an ilmenite-rich layer, which would make the Moon similar to Mars, where partial melt was recently inferred from the analysis of seismic data.”

The idea that the Moon might still have a molten layer, much like Mars, opens new avenues for understanding the evolution of terrestrial planets and moons. If this molten zone plays a role in the Moon’s thermal state and tectonic history, it could also influence other planetary bodies that have similar compositions. Scientists are particularly interested in the potential similarities between the Moon and Mars, as both celestial bodies may still retain some internal heat despite their small sizes and apparent lack of recent volcanic activity.

Future Research and Exploration Prospects

While the current findings are based on remote sensing data, future lunar missions could provide more direct evidence of the Moon’s internal structure. The researchers believe that seismic readings taken from the lunar surface could offer deeper insights into the molten layer’s composition and behavior. Establishing a permanent base on the Moon, a goal of NASA’s Artemis program, would allow scientists to deploy seismic sensors capable of detecting subtle movements and vibrations deep within the Moon’s mantle. Such data could help clarify how thick the partially molten layer is, what materials it contains, and how long it has been active.

Moreover, understanding the Moon’s deep structure has profound implications for lunar exploration. As the study notes, “The existence of this zone has profound implications for the Moon's thermal state and evolution.” If the Moon is still geologically active in some capacity, it could affect how future lunar bases are constructed, particularly in regions near the poles, where ice deposits might be affected by subsurface heat.

This discovery also adds a new dimension to our understanding of planetary bodies that appear geologically inactive on the surface. Like Mars, the Moon may hold hidden reserves of heat that could change how we approach the study of planetary geology. As one researcher noted, “We will learn a whole lot about how the impact process works,” once future missions investigate the Moon’s internal activity in more detail.

The Bigger Picture: Planetary Evolution and Comparisons to Earth

The presence of a partially molten zone beneath the Moon’s surface offers a valuable comparison to Earth’s own interior. While Earth’s mantle is largely molten and drives plate tectonics, the Moon’s much smaller size was thought to have prevented any similar processes from occurring after its early formation. However, the discovery of this low-viscosity zone suggests that the Moon’s mantle might still be evolving, albeit on a much slower timescale than Earth’s. Researchers will now need to revisit older models of lunar formation and cooling to account for this molten layer and its role in shaping the Moon’s interior structure over billions of years.

This study also points to the importance of gravitational interactions between the Earth and the Moon, as the tidal forces exerted by Earth might play a role in sustaining the molten layer. The Moon’s close proximity to Earth means that its interior is continually stressed by tidal forces, potentially keeping parts of its mantle in a partially molten state. This process could be similar to the tidal heating seen in moons around Jupiter and Saturn, such as Io and Enceladus, where gravitational interactions drive internal heating and geological activity.

In conclusion, the discovery of a molten zone within the Moon's mantle not only challenges long-standing assumptions about the lunar interior but also opens new lines of inquiry into how small planetary bodies retain heat over geological timescales. Future missions, equipped with seismic instruments and other advanced sensors, will be critical in confirming the exact nature of this molten layer and understanding its implications for the Moon’s geological history. This discovery marks an important step in our understanding of the Moon and its similarities to other celestial bodies in our solar system.

Tackling Waste for Sustainable Space Exploration

Managing waste is one of the most pressing issues for future space missions, especially as NASA looks toward long-term human habitation on the Moon. Unlike Earth, where waste can be easily disposed of, space missions face the challenge of dealing with limited resources and the need to efficiently handle waste that accumulates over time. The LunaRecycle Challenge seeks to address this by focusing on inorganic waste streams—such as food wrappers, damaged clothing, and leftover materials from experiments—and transforming them into usable products that could support the mission itself.

This marks a shift in NASA’s waste management strategy. While earlier efforts were aimed at reducing the mass and volume of trash, the LunaRecycle Challenge prioritizes recycling materials into new products that can be reused during space missions. By doing so, the agency hopes to reduce the logistical burden of carrying extra supplies while creating a closed-loop system where waste is repurposed, reducing reliance on resupply missions from Earth.

The competition comes at a critical time, as NASA ramps up efforts for its Artemis missions, which aim to land astronauts on the Moon by 2025 and establish a sustainable base by the end of the decade. These missions are part of a broader strategy that will eventually lead to human missions to Mars, making it vital to solve the problem of waste management for long-duration exploration.

Competition Tracks: Prototype and Digital Twin

The LunaRecycle Challenge is divided into two distinct tracks designed to accommodate a wide range of participants with varying expertise:

1. Prototype Build Track: This track calls for participants to design and develop hardware components that can recycle one or more types of solid waste directly on the lunar surface. Solutions must be energy-efficient, low-mass, and have minimal environmental impact, as these factors are crucial for sustainable space exploration.
2. Digital Twin Track: In this track, teams are asked to create a virtual replica of a full recycling system that could be used on the Moon. This digital approach allows for the modeling and simulation of innovative ideas, making it more accessible for participants who may not have the resources to develop physical prototypes.

This dual-track format not only encourages a broad range of participants, from established companies to independent innovators and students, but also promotes creative approaches to solving the complex issue of space waste. The University of Alabama, a key partner in this competition, will coordinate with former Centennial Challenge winner AI Spacefactory to manage and facilitate the competition, ensuring a robust and global response.

“I am pleased that NASA’s LunaRecycle Challenge will contribute to solutions within advanced manufacturing and habitats,” said Kim Krome, acting program manager for NASA’s Centennial Challenges. “We are eager to see what solutions our global competitors generate and how this challenge will help us move closer to achieving sustainable space exploration.”

Advancing NASA's Long-term Goals through Open Innovation

The LunaRecycle Challenge is part of NASA’s open innovation strategy, which taps into the public’s ingenuity to solve complex challenges facing space exploration. By crowd-sourcing solutions, NASA hopes to benefit from a wide range of perspectives and technological advancements that can be applied not only in space but also here on Earth.

“NASA has always been committed to leveraging the creativity and innovation of the public,” Kaminski explained. “This challenge, in particular, represents an opportunity to revolutionize how we manage waste both in space and at home. The lessons learned from the Moon could be directly applied to improving waste treatment processes on Earth, contributing to greater sustainability for all.”

The challenge addresses three key technological needs identified by NASA’s Space Technology Mission Directorate: waste management for habitats, manufacturing of parts and products in space, and recycling and reusing materials for future missions. Success in these areas could significantly reduce the cost and complexity of long-duration missions, making sustainable space travel more achievable.

A Path toward Sustainable Space and Earth

The LunaRecycle Challenge holds the potential to change how we think about waste, not just in space but also on Earth. By incentivizing global participation, NASA is encouraging the development of technologies that could drastically improve the sustainability of space missions. These innovations may lead to more efficient systems for handling waste in future lunar habitats, while also reducing the need for resupply missions from Earth, thus lowering the overall cost of space exploration.

NASA’s vision for sustainable exploration includes the development of self-sufficient systems that make use of every resource available. As NASA’s Artemis missions pave the way for longer stays on the Moon and potential journeys to Mars, the ability to recycle and reuse materials will be crucial. The LunaRecycle Challenge represents an important step toward that future, with the potential to revolutionize how we manage waste in space and on Earth.

Features and Design of the Lunar Spacesuit

The China Manned Space Agency (CMSA) showcased the red-and-white extravehicular activity (EVA) suit over the weekend, highlighting its advanced capabilities. The suit is equipped to handle the harsh environment of the moon, where temperatures can swing dramatically from highs of 121°C (250°F) to lows of -133°C (-208°F). It also offers protection against lunar dust, vacuum conditions, and high radiation levels.

In addition to its protective features, the suit is built for mobility. Astronauts will be able to bend, squat, and perform other movements necessary for lunar exploration, making the suit ideal for tasks such as collecting samples or conducting research. Zhai Zhigang and Wang Yaping, two of China’s prominent astronauts, demonstrated the suit's flexibility, showing how it enables astronauts to climb ladders and maneuver with ease.

The suit also incorporates a multi-functional control console on the chest, along with integrated long- and short-range cameras mounted on the helmet, which has a glare-proof visor to protect against the sun’s rays. State media further emphasized the cultural significance of the suit's design, with red stripes inspired by ancient Chinese art, symbolizing strength and national pride.

China’s Lunar Ambitions

China has made rapid strides in space exploration over the past decade. The unveiling of the new lunar spacesuit is part of a larger mission to land astronauts on the moon by 2030. This mission will mark a pivotal moment in the country’s space program, as China aims to join the United States as the only nations to have successfully landed humans on the lunar surface.

China’s lunar mission plans include not only sending astronauts to the moon but also conducting robotic missions to the moon’s south pole in the years leading up to the crewed landing. These precursor missions, slated for 2026 and 2028, will focus on resource surveys and preparing for future exploration, with an eye on establishing a long-term International Lunar Research Station (ILRS) by the 2030s.

The lunar spacesuit is specifically designed to handle the unique challenges of working on the moon, which presents much harsher conditions than low-Earth orbit. Wang Chunhui, deputy chief designer at the China Astronaut Research and Training Center, explained, “Complex environmental factors such as lunar dust, regolith, and the high radiation environment require the suit to be lightweight and provide maximum protection while maintaining mobility.”

China and International Competition in Space Exploration

China’s lunar ambitions come at a time when NASA is also preparing for a return to the moon with its Artemis program, which aims to land astronauts on the lunar surface by 2026. NASA has faced delays in its timeline, however, pushing back the Artemis III mission that was initially scheduled for 2024.

Both China and the United States are racing to establish a foothold on the moon, not only for scientific research but also for the potential extraction of lunar resources, which could be vital for future space exploration missions. As part of these efforts, both nations are also working to attract international partners for their respective lunar programs, with China focusing on the ILRS and NASA on building a sustained lunar presence through the Artemis program.

While competition between the two space powers continues, China’s unveiling of its lunar spacesuit marks a critical milestone in the country’s space exploration timeline, highlighting its determination to become a major player in the next era of lunar exploration.

This deal, potentially worth $4.8 billion, signifies a crucial leap forward in developing the lunar infrastructure needed to support sustained exploration on the moon. The contract, effective from October 2024, emphasizes providing communications and navigation services to NASA’s Artemis program, aligning with the agency’s goal of establishing a long-term human presence on the lunar surface.

Expanding the Lunar Economy and Infrastructure

The primary purpose of the contract is to provide lunar communications and navigation services to support future Artemis lunar landers, rovers, and other spacecraft. Intuitive Machines will help build a lunar relay network with satellites in lunar orbit, easing the current burden on NASA’s Deep Space Network (DSN). According to NASA, the DSN is under heavy demand due to its crucial role in communicating with a range of missions from Mars to outer space.

This collaboration will not only improve the communication infrastructure but will also be a key factor in establishing a foundation for economic activity on the moon. “NASA’s partnership with Intuitive Machines will advance our understanding of lunar navigation while enabling a sustainable lunar presence,” NASA stated.

Supporting the Artemis Program

The Artemis program aims to return astronauts to the moon for the first time since the Apollo missions. This ambitious initiative seeks to explore more of the lunar surface than ever before and prepare for the next giant leap: sending astronauts to Mars. By contracting Intuitive Machines, NASA ensures that the communication infrastructure required for the program is in place.

Through this contract, Intuitive Machines will develop services to connect both crewed and uncrewed missions on the moon, as well as provide real-time navigation capabilities. The introduction of relay satellites will reduce the reliance on direct-to-Earth communications and allow for smoother, more robust mission operations.

A Critical Leap Toward Lunar Autonomy

By selecting Intuitive Machines, NASA also aims to foster commercial space capabilities that can operate independently of NASA’s direct oversight. The initiative marks a key shift in how space exploration might be structured in the future, with private entities taking on more responsibility in creating and maintaining the necessary infrastructure.

This approach also underscores NASA’s commitment to building a lunar economy, driven by the growth of commercial enterprises. Steve Altemus, CEO of Intuitive Machines, described the contract as a pivotal step toward enabling “a robust lunar economy, which will provide benefits for future generations of explorers and entrepreneurs.”

Addressing Challenges in Space Communications

One of the key challenges NASA has faced in lunar missions is establishing reliable and redundant communication links. The moon’s distance from Earth and its lack of infrastructure have historically limited the scope of what lunar missions can accomplish. The Deep Space Network, which currently handles the bulk of communications, is also tasked with supporting an ever-growing list of missions, including those on Mars and beyond.

By creating a network of satellites around the moon, Intuitive Machines will help NASA reduce the DSN’s load and provide more resilient communication pathways. This is especially critical for ensuring continuous communication with lunar outposts and landing sites, even when Earth is not in view.

Looking Toward the Future of Lunar Exploration

This partnership between NASA and Intuitive Machines represents a major leap toward realizing the long-term goals of lunar exploration. As the Artemis program progresses, communication and navigation capabilities will play an essential role in the success of human missions to the moon and beyond.

The contract highlights NASA’s broader strategy of partnering with commercial space companies to create the tools and services required for deep space exploration. With this milestone, both NASA and Intuitive Machines are positioning themselves at the forefront of a new era of space exploration, where lunar and Martian exploration become achievable realities.

By developing this lunar communications network, NASA is laying the groundwork not only for Artemis missions but also for the larger goal of interplanetary exploration. The vision for the future is clear: a sustainable, economically viable lunar presence that opens the door for Mars exploration and beyond.

As humanity prepares to return to the Moon under the Artemis program, the need for a universal and precise timekeeping system has become increasingly important. With a growing number of nations and private companies planning lunar missions, having a shared time standard will ensure safe and efficient operations on the Moon and, eventually, other planets.

Why a Lunar Time Standard is Necessary

Time behaves differently on the Moon than it does on Earth due to the weaker gravity. On the Moon, clocks would tick 56 microseconds faster per day than they do on Earth, a discrepancy first predicted by Einstein’s theory of relativity. Though this difference might seem minuscule, it has major implications for missions involving spacecraft landings, communication, and navigation. Without adjustments for this time difference, even small inaccuracies could lead to potentially dangerous errors in landing trajectories or miscommunications with Earth.

NASA’s Ben Ashman, navigation lead for lunar relay development at SCaN, explained the importance of this project: “A shared definition of time is an important part of safe, resilient, and sustainable operations.” As more countries and private companies launch missions to the Moon, including those from the U.S., Europe, China, and India, establishing a common framework for timekeeping will ensure that all operations are synchronized, reducing the risk of accidents or communication errors.

Establishing Coordinated Lunar Time (LTC)

Developing a reliable time standard for the Moon involves collaboration between NASA, other U.S. agencies, and international partners. The goal is to create a lunar time standard similar to Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), which is used on Earth. The challenge, however, lies in the fact that time on the Moon doesn’t move at the same rate as on Earth due to the Moon’s lower gravitational force. Atomic clocks on the lunar surface will tick faster than their Earth-bound counterparts, so scientists are working to develop precise mathematical models to correct for these differences.

NASA is collaborating with the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) and other agencies to determine how best to establish this new time standard. According to Cheryl Gramling, lead on lunar position, navigation, and timing at NASA, even small time discrepancies can make a big difference in space travel. “For something traveling at the speed of light, 56 microseconds is enough time to travel the distance of approximately 168 football fields,” she said. These microseconds could lead to significant errors in navigation and mission operations, which is why getting lunar time right is so crucial.

Once a lunar time standard is established, atomic clocks will likely be placed on or near the lunar surface. The exact locations and configurations are still being researched, but this lunar time zone will serve as a reference point for all future missions to the Moon, just as UTC does for Earth. This system will ensure that all operations, from landing spacecraft to communicating with Earth, are perfectly synchronized.

Preparing for Future Lunar Missions

The need for a lunar time standard is becoming increasingly urgent as NASA’s Artemis program moves closer to establishing a long-term human presence on the Moon. The upcoming Artemis II mission, which will send astronauts around the Moon for the first time in over 50 years, highlights the importance of precise timekeeping. The Artemis program aims to lay the foundation for sustainable lunar exploration, including the eventual construction of permanent bases and outposts.

NASA’s SCaN program is at the heart of this effort. As the agency responsible for space communications and navigation, SCaN ensures that more than 100 missions, including those aboard the International Space Station and future Artemis missions, stay connected and coordinated. SCaN’s networks, such as the Deep Space Network, will be crucial for monitoring lunar missions, supporting communications between Earth and the Moon, and ensuring the safety of astronauts on future lunar expeditions.

The lunar time standard also has broader implications for exploration beyond the Moon. Once established, this system could be scaled to work for missions to Mars and other celestial bodies. Time discrepancies become even more significant when traveling farther from Earth, and a reliable timekeeping system for different planetary bodies will be essential as humans venture deeper into the solar system. As NASA's SCaN team continues to develop the lunar time standard, it will play a central role in future exploration efforts not just on the Moon but throughout the solar system.

Looking to the future: A Universal Time System for Space

The establishment of a Coordinated Lunar Time represents a crucial step in the development of a long-term human presence on the Moon and beyond. This initiative highlights how important timekeeping will be for future space exploration, not just for communication and navigation but also for the safe execution of complex space missions.

As the commercial space industry grows and more nations expand their space programs, having a universal time standard will ensure that all missions operate within the same framework, minimizing the risk of errors. NASA’s efforts to develop lunar time will also serve as a blueprint for future exploration initiatives, from Mars to the outer planets, helping humanity establish a lasting presence throughout the solar system.

This project, known as the International Lunar Research Station (ILRS), is being developed in collaboration with Russia and aims to construct a series of bases both on the lunar surface and in orbit. The base will be built in two phases, with the first phase focused on robotic construction and the second phase creating an extensive lunar network that will support long-term human habitation by the middle of the century.

A Two-Phase Approach to Lunar Colonization

China’s plan for the ILRS follows a two-phase timeline, with completion of the initial phase expected by 2035. This phase will involve the launch of five super heavy-lift rockets between 2030 and 2035, which will deliver the components needed to build a robotic moon base at the lunar south pole. These missions will lay the groundwork for the construction of a more advanced base capable of supporting human life, which is expected to be operational by 2050. During a presentation at the International Deep Space Exploration Conference in Anhui, China, Wu Yanhua, the chief designer of China’s deep space exploration project, provided further details of the plan.

Wu described the extended model of the moon base as a "comprehensive lunar station network that utilizes the lunar orbit station as its central hub and the south pole station as its primary base," adding that this extended network would include exploration nodes at the lunar equator and on the far side of the moon. Power for the base will be supplied by a combination of solar, radioisotope, and nuclear generators, while communication between the moon and Earth will be facilitated by high-speed lunar surface networks.

Wu also emphasized that the ILRS project is not merely about building a lunar base. It is seen as a crucial step toward enabling future human missions to Mars. "The lunar base will provide us with the foundation to test technologies for long-duration space exploration and, eventually, crewed missions to Mars," Wu explained.

During the same conference, Senegal became the latest country to join the ILRS project, bringing the total number of participating nations to 13. This partnership highlights China’s efforts to internationalize its space initiatives, as it continues to attract partners from Asia, Europe, and Africa. However, the ILRS stands in direct competition with NASA’s Artemis program, which also aims to establish a base camp at the lunar south pole and return humans to the moon by the end of the decade.

Lava Tubes: A Key to Sustainable Lunar Habitation?

In addition to its plans for a moon base, China is also investigating the potential of lunar lava tubes as ideal locations for long-term human habitation. Lava tubes, formed by ancient volcanic activity, are tunnels beneath the moon’s surface that offer natural protection from cosmic radiation, micrometeorite impacts, and the extreme temperature fluctuations that occur on the moon. This protection makes lava tubes an attractive option for building lunar bases, especially as China moves toward establishing a more permanent human presence on the moon.

A recent series of papers published in the Journal of Deep Space Exploration detailed China’s interest in lava tubes and their potential as future lunar habitats. The papers propose using mobile robots equipped with 3D imaging and navigation systems to explore the entrances of these lava tubes. The research calls for a multi-stage approach to exploration, starting with surface rovers that would map the entrances to the tubes, followed by smaller robots or drones that could enter and explore the interiors of the tunnels.

"Lava tubes represent almost ideal habitats," said Clive Neal, a professor of lunar science at the University of Notre Dame, in a discussion of China’s research. "They provide protection from micro and some macro meteoroid bombardment, the thermal swings between night and day, and primary and secondary radiation. Any habitat on the Moon must be buried several meters below the surface; otherwise, humans will be at severe risk of harm."

China’s exploration of lava tubes is part of its broader strategy to enhance the sustainability of lunar missions. These natural shelters could enable long-term habitation by using in-situ resources, such as lunar soil, to construct habitats within the tubes. However, challenges remain, including the difficulty of safely entering and exiting these underground tunnels with large equipment and personnel, as well as ensuring the structural integrity of the tubes for human habitation.

China’s Lunar Strategy: A Wake-Up Call for the U.S.?

As China accelerates its lunar ambitions, many experts see this as a direct challenge to the United States’ space leadership. According to Clive Neal, China’s systematic approach to lunar exploration should be a wake-up call for the U.S. space program. "With the cancellation of VIPER, the United States has basically ceded leadership in lunar resource exploration," Neal said. The VIPER mission, which was designed to explore water-ice at the lunar south pole, was seen as a crucial step in NASA’s Artemis program, but its cancellation has left the U.S. behind in the race to develop lunar resources.

In contrast, China is actively preparing for its Chang’e-7 and Chang’e-8 missions, which will focus on prospecting for lunar volatiles and testing 3D printing technologies for building structures on the moon. These missions, scheduled for 2026 and 2028, are part of China’s long-term plan to establish a human-tended lunar outpost.

Neal added, "China will get to set a precedent on how lunar resources are used because they have a plan. If we want to have a vibrant cislunar economy underpinned by lunar resources, VIPER should be the first in a series of rover missions, not only for water ice, but for helium-3, rare earth elements, and platinum group elements."

The Global Race to the Moon

China’s International Lunar Research Station is part of a broader global effort to return to the moon and establish a long-term human presence. As both China and NASA ramp up their lunar ambitions, the moon is quickly becoming a focal point for international competition and collaboration. China’s focus on lava tubes and the development of in-situ resource utilization technologies marks a significant step forward in the effort to make lunar habitation a reality.

With its advanced planning, international partnerships, and focus on sustainability, China is positioning itself as a major player in the new era of lunar exploration. As China moves ahead with its moon base plans, it remains to be seen how the global landscape of space exploration will evolve—and whether the United States can rise to meet the challenge.

This groundbreaking discovery suggests that volcanic eruptions may have occurred as recently as 120 million years ago, overturning long-held assumptions that the Moon has been geologically inactive for over a billion years. The results, published in Science, come from the detailed study of volcanic glass beads collected by the Chang’e 5 lander, which indicate a much younger volcanic history than previously thought.

Evidence from Chang’e 5 Samples: Young Volcanic Glass on the Moon

The Chang’e 5 mission, which successfully returned lunar samples to Earth in December 2020, provided scientists with the first new material from the Moon since the 1970s. The mission retrieved 3.82 pounds (1,731 grams) of lunar soil from a region known as Oceanus Procellarum. In these samples, researchers discovered tiny glass beads, which are formed by volcanic activity. After meticulously studying around 3,000 glass beads, scientists identified three that were of volcanic origin.

The age of these beads, determined through uranium-lead dating, was the most surprising finding. The dating showed that these beads were formed just 123 million years ago, with a margin of error of 15 million years. This is relatively recent in geological terms, especially considering the Moon’s age of about 4.5 billion years. The high precision of these measurements has stunned scientists. "The fact that these volcanic glass beads were formed during the time when dinosaurs roamed Earth is astonishing," said Dr. Bi-Wen Wang, lead author from the Institute of Geology and Geophysics at the Chinese Academy of Sciences. The presence of these young volcanic beads has caused researchers to rethink their understanding of the Moon's volcanic history, suggesting that the Moon may have been volcanically active far longer than previously assumed.

Challenging Established Theories of Lunar Geology

For decades, scientists believed that the Moon had cooled and become geologically inactive over a billion years ago. Because the Moon is much smaller than Earth, it was thought to have lost its internal heat more quickly, leading to the cessation of volcanic activity by about 3 billion years ago. This assumption was supported by the age of the basaltic plains, the dark areas visible on the Moon’s surface, which were formed by lava flows during its early history. However, the discovery of much younger volcanic glass contradicts this narrative and suggests that volcanic activity persisted well into the Moon's more recent geological past.

The key to this continued volcanism might lie in the heat-generating elements present within the Moon’s mantle. Elements such as uranium, thorium, and potassium generate heat through radioactive decay, which could have kept parts of the lunar mantle hot enough to produce magma for longer than previously thought. According to Dr. Wang, "The young age of these volcanic beads shows us that the Moon may not be as different from Earth as we once thought." This discovery suggests that the Moon may have had magma chambers deep beneath its surface that remained active well into its later history, potentially fueled by these radioactive elements.

Implications for a Revised Timeline of Lunar Volcanism

This discovery significantly alters the timeline of volcanic activity on the Moon. Previous studies suggested that the Moon’s volcanic activity peaked between 3 and 3.8 billion years ago, creating the vast mare or basalt plains visible today. The Chang’e 5 findings suggest that volcanic activity did not cease abruptly but instead may have continued sporadically, with eruptions occurring as recently as 120 million years ago. This new timeline has profound implications for our understanding of how the Moon evolved over time.

Recent discoveries of irregular mare patches (IMPs), which appear to have formed less than 100 million years ago, hinted at more recent volcanic activity. These patches, observed through crater counting techniques, suggested that some form of volcanism could have occurred more recently than believed. However, until now, there had been no direct laboratory evidence to confirm these findings. The discovery of volcanic glass beads from Chang’e 5 provides definitive proof that volcanic activity occurred long after the Moon was thought to have become geologically dormant.

Dr. Yuri Amelin and Dr. Qing-Zhu Yin, who commented on the findings in a Science editorial, praised the precision and care involved in the analysis, describing it as "a needle in a haystack" search to identify volcanic material among the thousands of beads. They noted that “the effort … put into finding the volcanic ‘needle’ in the impact-generated ‘haystack’ has paid off.” This meticulous work has revealed not only the existence of young volcanic activity but also pointed to new areas of research regarding the Moon’s geological evolution.

Could the Moon Still be Volcanically Active?

The discovery of such recent volcanic activity raises the question of whether the Moon could still have active magma chambers today. Although the Moon has been cooling for billions of years, the presence of radioactive elements in its interior could continue to provide enough heat to sustain volcanic activity, albeit on a much smaller scale. Dr. Wang and his team believe that further research and modeling studies will be needed to determine whether the Moon could still be producing magma today.

"This raises the question of whether the Moon is still producing magma today," the study noted, highlighting the need for further exploration and observation. With new missions planned by NASA, including the Artemis program, and additional international lunar missions, scientists may soon have more opportunities to investigate whether volcanic activity could still be ongoing beneath the Moon’s surface.

The Future of Lunar Exploration

The discovery of recent volcanism on the Moon underscores the need for continued exploration and study of our nearest celestial neighbor. With plans to return humans to the Moon through NASA’s Artemis missions, scientists are eager to explore areas that could offer more insights into the Moon’s volcanic history. Future missions may target regions of interest, such as volcanic vents or the Oceanus Procellarum, where the Chang’e 5 mission collected its samples.

As Dr. Wang pointed out, "The Moon’s volcanic history is far more complex than we previously thought." The Chang’e 5 findings not only reshape our understanding of the Moon’s past but also open new avenues of research into how volcanic activity might still be influencing the lunar surface today. This discovery is likely to guide future missions as scientists seek to learn more about the Moon’s geological processes and how they compare to those of other rocky planets, including Earth.

This marks a critical step in ensuring that the lander is fully prepared for its upcoming mission as part of NASA's Commercial Lunar Payload Services (CLPS) program. The lander, which is designed to deliver multiple scientific payloads to the Moon’s surface, is now undergoing a battery of tests that will validate its readiness for the harsh conditions of space travel and lunar operations.

Extensive Pre-Launch Testing: Ensuring Readiness for Space

The Blue Ghost lander, Firefly’s first lunar vehicle, arrived at JPL after undergoing extensive testing at the company’s Texas headquarters. These in-house tests were designed to simulate the landing and operational challenges the spacecraft will face on the lunar surface. Firefly engineers created a one-acre simulated moonscape to test the lander’s hazard avoidance and terrain-relative navigation technologies. The tests included nearly 100 drop tests, which were conducted to ensure that Blue Ghost’s legs can withstand the shock of a lunar landing. Additionally, engineers used drones to simulate the spacecraft's descent and test its ability to navigate autonomously in a lunar environment.

“These tests are setting a new standard in the industry,” said Jana Spruce, Firefly’s vice president of spacecraft. She added, “After all the hard work, it’s bittersweet to see Blue Ghost leave our Texas-based facility, but we’re more than ready for this final test.”

At JPL, the lander is now being subjected to a comprehensive series of environmental tests. These include vibration, acoustic, thermal vacuum, and electromagnetic interference (EMI) tests. The vibration tests will simulate the intense shaking that the lander will experience during launch aboard a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket, while acoustic tests will ensure that the spacecraft can endure the extreme noise levels produced during lift-off. The thermal vacuum tests will replicate the temperature extremes and near-vacuum conditions of space, while the EMI tests will check for potential interference between the lander’s electronic systems and external sources of electromagnetic radiation.

Firefly Aerospace's interim chief executive, Peter Schumacher, emphasized the importance of this phase: “The extensive environmental testing we’ll complete at JPL, combined with the robust testing we’ve already completed in house, will further reduce our risk posture and set us up for a successful soft landing.” He further noted that testing at JPL is a proud continuation of the legacy of NASA’s Surveyor landers from the 1960s, which were also tested in the same facilities.

A Key Role in NASA’s Lunar Exploration Efforts

If all goes according to plan, Blue Ghost is set to launch in the fourth quarter of 2024. After liftoff, the lander will spend about one month in Earth orbit undergoing final system checks before heading towards the Moon. Once it enters lunar orbit, Blue Ghost will spend an additional two weeks orbiting the Moon to ensure all systems are functioning correctly ahead of its descent to the lunar surface.

The lander is targeting Mare Crisium, a vast plain located in the northeastern quadrant of the Moon’s near side. This region has been chosen for its scientific interest, as it offers a relatively flat surface and is known for its unique geological features. Blue Ghost will carry 10 science and technology demonstration payloads, including an X-ray imager to study the Earth’s magnetosphere, a lunar regolith sampling system, and a receiver capable of detecting GPS and Galileo navigation signals at lunar distances.

Firefly’s mission is part of NASA’s broader strategy to advance lunar exploration through the CLPS program, which seeks to facilitate the delivery of scientific instruments and technology demonstrations to the Moon. The success of these missions is seen as critical for supporting NASA’s Artemis program, which aims to return humans to the Moon by 2025 and establish a sustainable presence there. Firefly is among a small number of companies chosen by NASA to contribute to this ambitious effort, following in the footsteps of Astrobotic and Intuitive Machines.

Overcoming Challenges and Looking Ahead

While Firefly is now poised to become the third company to attempt a lunar landing under the CLPS program, it faces significant pressure to deliver a successful mission. Previous attempts have encountered difficulties: Astrobotic’s Peregrine lander, for instance, suffered a propulsion malfunction during its launch earlier this year, leading to an aborted landing. Similarly, Intuitive Machines’ Odysseus lander experienced a partial success in February, managing to land on the Moon but ultimately falling on its side, limiting its functionality.

Blue Ghost is designed to operate for one lunar day—which equates to 14 Earth days—and will continue functioning for several hours into the lunar night. Its mission will gather valuable data and test new technologies that could be used in future lunar missions. Firefly has also been awarded a contract for a second lunar lander mission, known as Blue Ghost 2, which is scheduled for 2026 and will attempt to land on the far side of the Moon. This mission will carry an astrophysics experiment and two additional payloads, further advancing NASA’s lunar exploration goals.

This inaugural launch marks a pivotal moment for Blue Origin, as it seeks to establish itself as a major player in the commercial space industry and demonstrate the capabilities of its reusable rocket technology.

New Glenn’s Impressive Capabilities: A Giant Leap in Rocket Design

The New Glenn rocket represents one of the most ambitious projects to date for Blue Origin, which was founded by Jeff Bezos in 2000 with the goal of reducing the cost of space travel and opening up access to space for a broader range of missions. Named after astronaut John Glenn, the first American to orbit the Earth, the rocket is designed to be reusable—a feature that Blue Origin hopes will dramatically lower the cost of launches over time. The rocket’s first stage is designed to land on a sea-based platform approximately 620 miles downrange, making it capable of being reused for up to 25 missions. This reusability model, similar to the strategy employed by SpaceX’s Falcon rockets, is crucial for making space missions more economical and sustainable.

One of the key features that sets New Glenn apart from other rockets is its massive payload fairing—the protective shell that encases the payload during launch. Measuring 7 meters in diameter, this fairing is large enough to accommodate three school buses, allowing New Glenn to carry much larger payloads than many other rockets currently in operation. This capability makes it an attractive option for clients with substantial payloads, such as NASA and large satellite operators like Amazon, which plans to use New Glenn to launch its Project Kuiper broadband satellites aimed at providing global internet coverage.

In addition to its size and reusability, New Glenn is equipped with advanced engines designed for maximum efficiency and thrust. Powered by BE-4 engines, which use liquefied natural gas (LNG) and liquid oxygen (LOX) as propellants, New Glenn is capable of lifting 45 metric tons to low Earth orbit (LEO) or 13 metric tons to geostationary transfer orbit (GTO). These capabilities make it a versatile rocket, capable of supporting a wide range of missions, from deploying constellations of communication satellites to launching deep space exploration probes.

Overcoming Challenges: High Stakes for Blue Origin

While Blue Origin is aiming for a mid-October launch, the road to New Glenn’s debut has not been without its challenges. The company has faced multiple delays in the rocket's development, some of which were due to technical difficulties at its manufacturing facility. Most notably, Blue Origin experienced a setback when hardware failures damaged critical components intended for the second and third New Glenn rockets. Despite these obstacles, Blue Origin has remained committed to staying on schedule for the rocket's inaugural launch in October 2024.

#NewGlenn’s inaugural mission aims to send @NASA’s ESCAPADE to Mars, with a launch date no earlier than October 13.

— Blue Origin (@blueorigin) August 23, 2024

There is significant pressure on Blue Origin to deliver a successful first flight, as the company is entering a highly competitive market dominated by established players like SpaceX and ULA. New Glenn’s performance will be closely watched by both potential clients and industry experts, as its success could unlock additional contracts, including lucrative national security launches for the U.S. Space Force. Securing such contracts is critical for Blue Origin’s long-term sustainability and its goal of becoming a major player in the space industry.

The stakes are high, but Blue Origin is betting on New Glenn’s capabilities to help it carve out a niche in the commercial space market. If successful, this launch will pave the way for future missions, including NASA’s Artemis program and other deep space exploration initiatives. The reusable design of New Glenn is a key selling point, as it promises to reduce the cost of repeated launches, making space exploration more accessible and sustainable.

Looking Ahead: What’s Next for Blue Origin and New Glenn

The success of New Glenn’s first launch will likely have far-reaching implications for Blue Origin’s future. In addition to its upcoming NASA and Project Kuiper missions, Blue Origin is positioning New Glenn as a critical component in the Artemis program, which aims to return humans to the Moon by 2025 and establish a sustainable lunar presence. New Glenn’s heavy-lift capabilities will be crucial for delivering large cargo to lunar orbit and supporting human exploration missions to Mars in the coming decades.

As Blue Origin looks beyond its inaugural launch, the company is focused on expanding its footprint in the commercial space industry. With contracts from both private companies and government agencies, New Glenn could become a workhorse for missions that require heavy payloads, deep space exploration, and potentially even crewed missions in the future. The rocket’s versatility and reusability make it an attractive option for a variety of clients, from satellite operators to space agencies.

For now, all eyes are on October 13, 2024, as Blue Origin prepares for the maiden flight of New Glenn. The successful launch will not only demonstrate the rocket’s capabilities but will also solidify Blue Origin’s position as a serious contender in the commercial spaceflight industry. As the company moves forward with its plans, the inaugural flight of New Glenn marks the beginning of a new chapter in Blue Origin’s journey to make space more accessible and affordable for all.

This discovery resolves long-standing questions about the Moon’s internal structure and provides valuable new insights into the formation of the Moon, its history, and the early days of the Solar System.

The Scientific Breakthrough: A Closer Look at the Moon's Core

The study, led by Arthur Briaud of the French National Centre for Scientific Research, combined data from various space missions and lunar laser-ranging experiments to model the Moon’s internal structure. Using this data, the team confirmed that the Moon’s inner core is solid, with a radius of 258 kilometers (160 miles) and a density of 7,822 kilograms per cubic meter, which closely matches that of iron. Surrounding this inner core is a fluid outer core with a radius of approximately 362 kilometers (225 miles). Together, these layers account for about 15% of the Moon’s total radius.

This discovery builds on prior research. In 2011, a team led by Renee Weber, a planetary scientist at NASA’s Marshall Space Flight Center, suggested that the Moon had a solid inner core, based on seismic data from the Apollo missions. Weber’s team estimated the radius of the core to be around 240 kilometers, with a density of 8,000 kilograms per cubic meter.

The findings of Briaud’s team not only confirm Weber’s earlier results but also offer more refined measurements and a more detailed understanding of the Moon’s internal structure. “Our results,” Briaud’s team wrote, “support a global mantle overturn scenario that brings substantial insights on the timeline of the lunar bombardment in the first billion years of the Solar System.”

Implications for the Moon’s Magnetic History

One of the key revelations from this discovery is its impact on our understanding of the Moon's magnetic history. The Moon once had a strong magnetic field, much like Earth’s, which began to decline around 3.2 billion years ago.

Magnetic fields are generated by movement and convection within a planet's core, typically involving liquid iron. The confirmation of the solid core helps scientists piece together how the Moon’s magnetic field was generated and why it eventually disappeared.

The study suggests that the solid core played a role in the Moon’s magnetic field during its early history, contributing to the geodynamo effect before the field eventually weakened as the core cooled. “Such a magnetic field is generated by motion and convection in the core, so what the lunar core is made of is deeply relevant to how and why the magnetic field disappeared,” the researchers noted.

What This Means for Future Lunar Exploration

With humanity planning to return to the Moon through initiatives like NASA’s Artemis program, this new understanding of the Moon’s internal structure could play a crucial role in future missions. The confirmation of a solid core adds a new layer of complexity to our understanding of the Moon, and it provides valuable context for future seismic studies that may be conducted on the lunar surface.

These findings also provide a foundation for deeper exploration into the Moon’s geological evolution. Scientists now have a clearer picture of the Moon's internal composition, which can help guide future explorations aimed at uncovering more about its formation and its role in the early Solar System. Given the renewed interest in lunar exploration, Briaud’s team concluded, “Perhaps we won’t have long to wait for seismic verification of these findings.”

This vital piece of hardware, part of NASA’s powerful Space Launch System (SLS) rocket, is now en route to Kennedy Space Center in Florida, where it will be integrated into the Artemis II rocket, readying it for its planned 2025 launch.

A Critical Component for Lunar Exploration

The LVSA is a pivotal part of NASA’s SLS, the rocket that will power Orion spacecraft and astronauts on their historic mission around the Moon. The 40-foot-tall LVSA serves as the crucial link between the rocket’s massive core stage and the interim cryogenic propulsion stage (ICPS), which will provide the necessary push to propel the crew into lunar orbit. Weighing approximately 1,600 pounds, this cone-shaped structure is integral to the success of the Artemis II mission, enabling the spacecraft to leave Earth’s orbit and head toward the Moon.

The LVSA’s design and assembly required years of research and development, with teams at Marshall Space Flight Center spearheading the project. As NASA emphasized, "It is responsible for supporting the weight of the ICPS and the Orion spacecraft while also transmitting the thrust from the four RS-25 engines and two five-segment boosters located on the core stage." This critical role highlights the significance of the LVSA in ensuring the Artemis II mission can achieve its goals of returning humans to lunar orbit, laying the groundwork for future lunar exploration.

The Journey to Kennedy Space Center

After its completion at Marshall, the LVSA was carefully prepared for its journey to Kennedy Space Center in Florida, where it will be stacked with the other components of the SLS rocket. On August 21, 2024, the LVSA was loaded onto NASA’s Pegasus Barge for transport via the Tennessee River. The Pegasus Barge has been specially designed to carry large rocket components from NASA's assembly and testing facilities to Kennedy Space Center.

NASA stated, "The Pegasus Barge will transport the LVSA down the Tennessee River to Michoud Assembly Facility in New Orleans for additional rocket hardware before heading to Kennedy Space Center for final assembly." This leg of the journey will be critical in preparing the Artemis II mission for its final countdown to launch. Upon its arrival at Kennedy Space Center, NASA’s Exploration Ground Systems teams will carefully stack the LVSA on top of the SLS core stage, ensuring that all components are securely connected for the mission.

Artemis II: A Giant Leap Toward the Moon

The Artemis II mission will be NASA’s first crewed flight around the Moon since the Apollo era, carrying four astronauts in the Orion spacecraft on a journey around the lunar body and back to Earth. The success of Artemis II is a key milestone in NASA’s broader Artemis program, which aims to land the first woman and the next man on the Moon in the coming years. Artemis II will test the SLS rocket and Orion spacecraft in a deep-space environment, ensuring that all systems perform as expected before future crewed landings on the lunar surface.

NASA’s Space Launch System (SLS) is the most powerful rocket the agency has ever built, designed to send humans deeper into space than ever before. The LVSA’s role in this mission is crucial, as it ensures that the core stage and upper stage are securely connected and that the spacecraft can achieve the necessary velocity to reach lunar orbit. "Its unique design allows it to withstand extreme conditions during launch and spaceflight," NASA said. The LVSA’s ability to transmit the thrust generated by the rocket’s engines to the upper stage and spacecraft is critical to the overall mission architecture.

With the LVSA now on its way to Florida, the final stages of preparation for Artemis II are well underway. This mission represents a major step toward establishing a sustainable human presence on the Moon and will provide valuable insights that will be applied to future Artemis missions, including Artemis III, which aims to land astronauts on the lunar surface by 2028. The data gathered from these missions will also support future endeavors to explore Mars and beyond.

Looking Toward the Future

The journey of the LVSA from Marshall to Kennedy marks a significant milestone in the Artemis II mission. NASA’s commitment to returning humans to the Moon and eventually venturing to Mars hinges on the success of missions like Artemis II. Each piece of hardware, from the LVSA to the Orion spacecraft, plays a crucial role in making these missions possible.

As NASA continues to push the boundaries of space exploration, the Artemis program represents a bold step into the future, with the ultimate goal of establishing a sustainable human presence on the Moon and paving the way for crewed missions to Mars. The successful transport and integration of the LVSA bring NASA one step closer to achieving these ambitious goals, reminding us of the extraordinary feats that can be accomplished when innovation and determination come together in pursuit of discovery.

Both NASA and its international partners are taking significant strides toward this goal by focusing on practical, cost-effective solutions for building in space. Using resources available on the Moon and investigating how materials behave in microgravity are key components in the effort to establish a long-term presence on the lunar surface.

The Role of Microwave Sintering in Lunar Construction

NASA’s Artemis program, which aims to return astronauts to the Moon and establish a lunar base, faces the significant challenge of finding ways to build without the luxury of easily transporting construction materials from Earth. As a result, the focus has shifted to using the Moon’s own resources to create habitats, specifically through a process called microwave sintering. This technique involves heating lunar regolith (the Moon’s soil) to solidify it into durable bricks or structures—without needing to melt it entirely, thereby conserving energy.

A research team at the Korea Institute of Civil Engineering and Building Technology (KICT) has made strides in this area, studying how ilmenite, a mineral abundant on the lunar surface, could enhance microwave sintering. The dielectric properties of ilmenite allow it to absorb microwaves more efficiently than other minerals, making it an ideal candidate for producing strong building materials directly on the Moon.

Dr. Young-Jae Kim of KICT stated, "This research is expected to be a crucial foundation for the development of microwave technology for future lunar exploration and lunar base construction." These advancements could significantly reduce the need to transport construction materials from Earth, making lunar habitation more feasible and sustainable.

Cement Mixing in Space: Testing Materials for Future Lunar Construction

As part of NASA’s Material Science on the Solidification of Concrete Hardening investigation, astronaut Matthew Dominick recently mixed cement aboard the International Space Station (ISS), marking a pivotal experiment in understanding how construction materials behave in microgravity. The goal is to determine whether lunar soil, when combined with other materials, can form a strong, durable concrete suitable for building lunar structures.

In the experiment, Dominick mixed lunar soil simulant with a liquid cement solution inside specialized bags, then incubated the mixture in the ISS’s Freezer/Refrigerator/Incubator Device to observe how it hardens over time in space conditions. These samples will eventually return to Earth for detailed analysis. Scientists hope to gain insights into how microgravity affects the solidification process and whether it could lead to improved methods for creating robust construction materials directly on the Moon. As NASA stated in a press release, "This experiment could bring humans one step closer to building a home away from home hundreds of thousands of miles away."

Building with Local Resources: A Step Toward Sustainability

One of the central goals of both experiments is to reduce the costs and complexity of lunar construction by using the Moon’s native resources. Transporting materials from Earth to the Moon is prohibitively expensive and logistically challenging. By focusing on technologies like microwave sintering and space-made cement, NASA and its international collaborators are developing the groundwork for creating a self-sustaining lunar base. This could allow future astronauts to build their habitats using materials like ilmenite and lunar regolith, significantly lowering the overall costs of construction.

These developments mark significant steps toward achieving long-term sustainability in space. Both microwave sintering and space-made cement demonstrate the growing capacity for in-situ resource utilization (ISRU)—using local materials to support exploration. The ability to produce durable, energy-efficient building materials on-site will be crucial for establishing a permanent human presence on the Moon and eventually on Mars.

These two small satellites, named Blue and Gold, represent a crucial step in our ongoing exploration of Mars. Built by Rocket Lab for NASA and the University of California Berkeley’s Space Science Laboratory, the spacecraft are designed to study the Red Planet's atmosphere and magnetic fields.

This mission is particularly noteworthy as it will mark the first-ever launch of Blue Origin’s New Glenn rocket from Cape Canaveral, making it a milestone event in the history of commercial spaceflight.

Unraveling Mars' Atmospheric Mysteries

The ESCAPADE mission, which stands for Escape and Plasma Acceleration and Dynamics Explorers, aims to provide critical data on the processes that have shaped Mars' current atmospheric conditions. Mars, which once had a thick atmosphere capable of supporting liquid water on its surface, is now a barren, desert-like planet with a thin atmosphere. Understanding what led to this drastic change is key to learning more about the planet’s history and its potential to support life in the distant past.

The twin spacecraft, Blue and Gold, will orbit Mars in elliptical paths, allowing them to gather detailed data on the planet's magnetosphere and how it interacts with the solar wind. This interaction is believed to be a major factor in stripping away Mars' atmosphere over billions of years. By studying the plasma and magnetic fields around Mars, scientists hope to gain insights into how and why Mars lost its atmosphere and what this might mean for the future exploration of the planet.

Peter Beck, the CEO of Rocket Lab, expressed his excitement about the mission, stating, "We've already been to the moon for NASA, so we're excited to build on that and send Rocket Lab technology deeper into the solar system, this time to the Red Planet." This mission builds on Rocket Lab's previous successes, including the CAPSTONE mission to the Moon, and underscores the company’s growing role in interplanetary exploration.

The First Launch of Blue Origin’s New Glenn Rocket

One of the most highly anticipated aspects of the ESCAPADE mission is its launch aboard Blue Origin’s New Glenn rocket. This heavy-lift vehicle, developed by Jeff Bezos’ space company, is designed to carry large payloads into space and return its first-stage booster for reuse, similar to SpaceX’s Falcon 9. The ESCAPADE mission will be the inaugural flight of New Glenn, launching from Cape Canaveral Space Force Station's Launch Complex 36. This facility has been extensively upgraded by Blue Origin, with over $1 billion invested to make it a hub for future space missions.

The upcoming launch is crucial for Blue Origin as it seeks to establish New Glenn as a reliable option for both government and commercial space missions. Rob Lillis, ESCAPADE's principal investigator and Associate Director for Planetary Science at the UC Berkeley Space Sciences Laboratory, praised the efforts by Rocket Lab and highlighted the importance of this milestone, saying, "The successful delivery of the spacecraft to Kennedy Space Center marks a significant milestone and the culmination of over three years of dedicated teamwork from individuals across the project, especially our partners at Rocket Lab."

The mission’s success will depend not only on the spacecraft but also on the performance of the New Glenn rocket. NASA has awarded Blue Origin a $20 million task order for this launch, which is part of a broader strategy to engage multiple private companies in its space exploration efforts. The launch window for the mission is expected to open on September 29, 2024, and extend into October, giving Blue Origin a critical opportunity to prove the capabilities of its new rocket.

A Collaboration that Paves the Way for Future Missions

The ESCAPADE mission is a prime example of the growing collaboration between NASA and private space companies like Rocket Lab and Blue Origin. This partnership highlights the increasing role of commercial entities in advancing space exploration, a trend that is likely to continue as NASA looks to achieve its ambitious goals, including the Artemis program and the eventual human exploration of Mars.

Rocket Lab has played a crucial role in the development of the twin spacecraft, overseeing their assembly, integration, and testing at its Spacecraft Production Complex in Long Beach, California. The company has demonstrated its capability to deliver high-performance spacecraft for complex interplanetary missions. "Interplanetary spacecraft must be much more resilient than Earth satellites, and developing not one, but two of these probes almost from scratch was no small feat," Lillis emphasized, acknowledging the challenges involved in preparing these spacecraft for their journey to Mars.

Meanwhile, Blue Origin’s New Glenn rocket is expected to play a pivotal role in not only NASA’s missions but also in commercial ventures, such as launching Amazon’s Project Kuiper satellites and contributing to NASA’s Artemis program by delivering equipment and supplies to the Moon. The success of this launch will help cement Blue Origin's position as a key player in the space industry and demonstrate its ability to handle complex and critical missions.

As the twin spacecraft make their way to Florida for the final phase of their journey, the space community is watching closely. The successful launch and deployment of the ESCAPADE mission will not only advance our understanding of Mars but also mark a significant step forward in the collaboration between public and private sectors in space exploration.

The mission will mark the first time that a private company conducts a spacewalk, further solidifying SpaceX’s reputation as a leader in commercial spaceflight.

This mission is part of the broader Polaris program, which aims to push the boundaries of human space exploration, advance new technologies, and ultimately pave the way for future space tourism and long-term human space presence.

Pioneering the first private spacewalk

The Polaris Dawn mission, which is part of a broader Polaris program, will be the first mission conducted entirely by a private company to include a spacewalk, also known as an Extravehicular Activity (EVA). Spacewalks have traditionally been the domain of government space agencies like NASA and Roscosmos, but this mission is about to change that paradigm.

The private astronauts will leave the safety of their spacecraft to venture into the vastness of space, conducting critical tasks outside the spacecraft’s cabin. This is a monumental step in SpaceX’s journey, demonstrating the capabilities of commercial companies to operate beyond just crewed missions to space stations.

The spacewalk will take place at an altitude higher than any other in history, making the mission all the more challenging. The crew, led by Jared Isaacman, a billionaire entrepreneur and astronaut who previously led the Inspiration4 mission, will don SpaceX-designed spacesuits to protect them from the harsh conditions of space. These suits are not just functional; they represent years of research and development aimed at ensuring the crew's safety during what is widely considered one of the most dangerous tasks in space.

This mission is significant in many ways. As Elon Musk tweeted on X, the Polaris Dawn mission will be “epic,” and it's hard to disagree when considering the risks and rewards of pushing the boundaries of human space exploration further than ever before. The mission's success could open the door to a new era in space, where private spacewalks become a regular part of commercial space missions.

First SpaceX spacewalk mission launches in a week. This will be epic. https://t.co/U9OSmDR2ti

— Elon Musk (@elonmusk) August 18, 2024

Expanding the Boundaries of Human Space Exploration

The Polaris Dawn mission is the first in a series of missions under the Polaris program, which aims to push the limits of what is possible in human space exploration. SpaceX has already made headlines with its reusable rockets, crewed missions to the International Space Station, and the Inspiration4 mission, which saw Isaacman and a civilian crew orbiting Earth. However, Polaris Dawn is set to take things even further by venturing into uncharted territory, both in terms of altitude and mission objectives.

Beyond the historic spacewalk, the mission will serve as a proving ground for new technologies that will be crucial for future space exploration. One of the key goals is to test the feasibility of high-altitude communications and data transmission, which will be vital for future missions to the Moon, Mars, and beyond. The crew will also conduct a series of scientific experiments that will provide valuable data on the effects of space travel on the human body, particularly in higher orbits where radiation exposure is more intense.

According to Elon Musk, the Polaris program is about much more than just achieving technical milestones. It is about opening up space to more people and enabling humanity to establish a permanent presence in space. The lessons learned from Polaris Dawn will be instrumental in future endeavors, such as NASA’s Artemis program, which aims to return humans to the Moon, and SpaceX’s ambitious plans to colonize Mars.

A New Era of Commercial Spaceflight

The significance of the Polaris Dawn mission goes beyond the immediate objectives of the mission itself. It represents a shift in how space exploration is conducted. In the past, space was the exclusive domain of government agencies with enormous budgets and the political will to fund complex missions. Today, private companies like SpaceX are taking the lead in pushing the boundaries of space exploration, often at a fraction of the cost traditionally associated with such missions.

The Polaris Dawn mission also demonstrates how private industry can complement government-led efforts. By advancing technologies such as reusable rockets, advanced spacesuits, and high-altitude communication systems, SpaceX is helping to lower the barriers to entry for space exploration. This has the potential to unlock new opportunities for scientific research, commercial ventures, and even space tourism.

The collaboration between Jared Isaacman and SpaceX highlights the growing role that private individuals and companies are playing in shaping the future of space exploration. Isaacman, who previously funded and commanded the Inspiration4 mission, is using his resources and influence to accelerate progress in space technology. This partnership is a testament to the power of public-private collaboration in achieving ambitious space goals that were once thought impossible.

The Future of the Polaris Program and Beyond

The Polaris Dawn mission is just the beginning of the Polaris program, which will continue to push the limits of what is possible in space exploration. Future missions in the program are expected to venture even further into space, testing new spacecraft, technologies, and mission architectures that will be essential for humanity’s future in space. These missions will also lay the groundwork for longer-term goals, such as establishing a sustainable presence on the Moon and eventually sending humans to Mars.

For SpaceX, the success of Polaris Dawn will mark another major milestone in its quest to make space more accessible. The company's long-term vision is to establish a multi-planetary civilization, with Mars as the ultimate goal. To achieve this, SpaceX is developing the Starship, a fully reusable spacecraft designed to carry humans to deep space destinations. The lessons learned from the Polaris Dawn mission will be invaluable as SpaceX continues to refine the Starship’s design and prepare for future deep space missions.

As excitement builds for the upcoming Polaris Dawn mission, there is no doubt that SpaceX is on the cutting edge of space exploration. With each new mission, the company is moving closer to a future where space travel is not only routine but also accessible to more people than ever before. And with Elon Musk leading the charge, the possibilities for the future of space exploration seem limitless.

This groundbreaking research, spearheaded by scientists at NASA's Ames Research Center, represents a significant step forward in sustainable space exploration and construction.

Fungal Habitats: A New Frontier in Space Construction

The Mycotecture Off Planet project explores the potential of using mycelia—the thread-like structures of fungi—to grow space habitats. This innovative approach leverages the natural properties of fungi to create lightweight, sustainable, and potentially self-healing structures. The project has received a Phase III award from NASA's Innovative Advanced Concepts (NIAC) program, providing $2 million over two years to further develop this technology.

Traditional habitat designs for Mars involve transporting all necessary materials from Earth, which is both costly and resource-intensive. As Lynn Rothschild, the principal investigator of the project, explained, “Right now, traditional habitat designs for Mars are like a turtle—carrying our homes with us on our backs—a reliable plan, but with huge energy costs.” The Mycotecture project proposes an alternative: “Instead, we can harness mycelia to grow these habitats ourselves when we get there.”

How Mycelium-Based Habitats Work

The concept involves sending dormant fungi to space, which can survive long space journeys. Upon arrival, simple, lightweight frameworks are assembled, and water is added to activate the fungi. The mycelia then grow around these frameworks, creating fully functional habitats. This method could significantly reduce the weight and resources required for transporting construction materials from Earth.

The overall design includes a three-layer dome structure. The outer layer consists of frozen water ice, which helps protect against radiation. A layer of cyanobacteria within this ice uses sunlight to produce oxygen and nutrients, which feed the inner mycelium layer. This setup not only provides structural integrity but also incorporates elements of self-sufficiency and sustainability. The fungal structure is then baked to kill the lifeform, ensuring the habitat's durability and preventing biological contamination.

Advancements and Earth Applications

While the primary goal is to develop habitats for space, the technology also holds promise for Earth-based applications. Mycelium has been explored for various uses, including water filtration, soil carbon capture, and even as a sustainable material for construction. Fungal-based biocomposites could potentially replace concrete and cement, significantly reducing carbon emissions from the construction industry.

“NASA’s space technology team and the NIAC program unlock visionary ideas—ideas that make the impossible possible,” said NASA Administrator Bill Nelson. “This new research is a stepping stone to our Artemis campaign as we prepare to go back to the Moon to live, to learn, to invent, to create—then venture to Mars and beyond.”

Mycelium’s potential uses are not limited to space. On Earth, this sustainable material can be used in construction to create eco-friendly buildings. Mycelium has been used as a flame retardant, to improve soil's carbon capture ability, and to break down plastics, showcasing its versatility and environmental benefits.

Overcoming Challenges and Future Prospects

The development of mycelium-based habitats faces several challenges, including ensuring the material's durability and resistance to space conditions. The research team is focused on optimizing the material properties and progressing toward testing in low Earth orbit. Future applications may include integration into commercial space stations or missions to the Moon and Mars.

“We are committed to advancing technologies to transport our astronauts, house our explorers, and facilitate valuable research,” said Walt Engelund, associate administrator for Programs in the Space Technology Mission Directorate at NASA Headquarters. “We invest in these technologies throughout their lifecycle, recognizing their potential to help us accomplish our goals—benefiting industry, our agency, and humanity.”

The Phase III NIAC award will enable the team to continue refining their mycelium-based designs and conduct tests that simulate space conditions. These efforts are crucial for ensuring that the habitats can withstand the harsh environments of the Moon and Mars.

NASA's Visionary Ideas Shaping Space Exploration

The Mycotecture Off Planet project exemplifies how innovative thinking and advanced research can revolutionize space exploration. By harnessing the unique properties of fungi, NASA is paving the way for more sustainable and efficient space habitation solutions. This research not only promises to enhance human space exploration but also offers potential benefits for sustainable living on Earth.

As NASA continues to push the boundaries of what is possible, projects like Mycotecture Off Planet highlight the importance of visionary ideas and early-stage research in shaping the future of space exploration. With continued support and development, mycelium-based habitats could become a cornerstone of future missions to the Moon, Mars, and beyond, ensuring that humanity can live and thrive on other planets.

This achievement, conducted by a team at NASA's Glenn Research Center, marks a significant advancement in data transmission technology, potentially paving the way for live 4K broadcasts of future lunar missions under the Artemis program.

Breakthrough in Laser Communication Technology

Traditionally, NASA has relied on radio waves for space communications, which, while effective, have limitations in data speed and volume. The new laser communication technology uses infrared light to transmit data 10 to 100 times faster than current radio frequency systems.

This recent test involved a portable laser terminal attached to a Pilatus PC-12 aircraft, which sent data to an optical ground station in Cleveland. From there, the data traveled via Earth-based networks to NASA’s White Sands Test Facility in New Mexico, and was then relayed to the Laser Communications Relay Demonstration (LCRD) in orbit.

The LCRD transmitted the data to the ILLUMA-T (Integrated LCRD LEO User Modem and Amplifier Terminal) payload on the ISS, which then sent it back to Earth. This complex process demonstrated the potential for high-speed, high-bandwidth communication links, which are essential for future deep-space missions.

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NASA highlighted the significance of this advancement, noting, "We can communicate with Voyager 1, which is over 15 billion miles away using radio waves, but laser communication can transmit 10 to 100 times more data at faster speeds."

This capability is crucial for missions beyond Earth's orbit, where the volume of data and speed of communication are critical for mission success. The ability to use lasers for data transmission represents a major leap forward in space communications technology, potentially revolutionizing how we connect with spacecraft exploring distant worlds.

Enhancing Future Space Missions

The success of this laser communication test has broad implications for NASA's future missions, particularly the Artemis program, which aims to return humans to the Moon by 2026. The ability to stream 4K video from space could revolutionize how we experience space exploration, providing high-definition, real-time visuals of astronauts working on the lunar surface.

Dr. Daniel Raible, principal investigator for the HDTN project at Glenn, emphasized the importance of this technology, stating, "These experiments are a tremendous accomplishment. We can now build upon the success of streaming 4K HD videos to and from the space station to provide future capabilities, like HD videoconferencing, for our Artemis astronauts, which will be important for crew health and activity coordination."

The clarity and immediacy of 4K video will enhance the ability of mission control to monitor astronaut activities, assess conditions on the lunar surface, and provide immediate support if needed.

This capability will not only enhance scientific data collection but also improve the communication and operational efficiency of future missions, allowing for better coordination between astronauts and mission control.

The technology could also play a crucial role in public engagement, allowing the world to experience space exploration in unprecedented detail. The use of lasers for communication could also help mitigate the limitations of radio waves, such as interference and limited bandwidth, providing a more reliable and efficient method for data transmission.

Continuous Testing and Future Developments

While the ILLUMA-T payload is no longer installed on the ISS, NASA will continue testing the 4K video streaming capabilities using the Pilatus PC-12 aircraft through the remainder of July. This ongoing testing is crucial for refining the technology and addressing any issues that arise.

The use of laser communication is seen as a pivotal development for future space exploration, especially as missions venture beyond low Earth orbit to destinations like Mars. The ability to transmit large amounts of data quickly and reliably is vital for the success of these missions, enabling detailed scientific analysis and providing critical support for crewed missions.

As NASA continues to develop and test these technologies, the advancements in laser communication could soon become a standard for space missions, enhancing our ability to explore and understand the universe. Dr. Raible highlighted the potential of this technology, stating, "We can envision a future where HD videoconferencing becomes a routine part of space missions, providing a direct and immediate connection between Earth and space."

This vision underscores the transformative potential of laser communication, not only for NASA's Artemis program but also for the broader field of space exploration. The success of these tests represents a significant step forward in realizing this vision, paving the way for a new era of high-definition, real-time space communication.

This core stage, a crucial component of the Space Launch System (SLS), traveled from NASA's Michoud Assembly Facility in New Orleans, covering a distance of 900 miles aboard the Pegasus barge. The journey, which involved careful coordination and logistics, culminated on July 23, 2024, with the offloading process beginning on July 24.

Arrival and Preparation at Kennedy Space Center

Upon its arrival, the 212-foot (65-meter) core stage was transported to the Vehicle Assembly Building (VAB), a monumental facility that plays a critical role in the final preparations of NASA's largest and most ambitious space missions.

Here, the core stage will undergo several weeks of pre-processing, which includes positioning it on skid beams and conducting thorough inspections and tests. This phase is crucial for ensuring that the core stage is in perfect condition before it is integrated with the other components of the SLS.

Sean Arrieta, operations manager for integrated operations in exploration ground systems at KSC, expressed enthusiasm, stating, "Our team has been chomping at the bit trying to get flight hardware back to KSC." This statement underscores the high level of anticipation and dedication among the teams working on this historic mission, as they prepare for the intricate task of integrating the core stage with the solid rocket boosters and the Orion spacecraft.

Significance of the Artemis 2 Mission

Artemis 2 is poised to be a landmark mission, as it will be the first crewed flight to the moon since Apollo 17 in 1972. This mission aims to send four astronauts—NASA commander Reid Wiseman, NASA pilot Victor Glover, NASA mission specialist Christina Koch, and Canadian Space Agency astronaut Jeremy Hansen—on an eight-day journey around the moon.

The mission will test and validate the performance of the SLS and the Orion spacecraft in a lunar environment, ensuring that all systems are ready for future missions. This mission will feature several firsts: Glover will be the first Black person to leave low Earth orbit, Koch will be the first woman to do so, and Hansen will be the first non-American astronaut on a lunar mission.

Technical Details and Future Work

The SLS core stage, built by Boeing, is a marvel of engineering. It features four RS-25 engines that together produce about 512,000 pounds of thrust, which is approximately 25% of the total thrust needed for liftoff. These engines are capable of burning liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen, the main propellants used in the core stage's propulsion system.

The propellant tanks can hold a combined 733,000 gallons of these cryogenic fuels, which are stored at extremely low temperatures. Following its arrival at KSC, the core stage will be integrated with the SLS rocket's solid rocket boosters, which are built by Northrop Grumman.

These boosters are stored near the Rotation, Processing, and Surge Facility (RPSF) and will be assembled and attached to the core stage as part of the final launch vehicle. Doug Hurley, former NASA astronaut and current Senior Vice President of Business Development at Northrop Grumman, stated, "Everything’s done through Artemis 4 right now... Now, it’s just the case of waiting when NASA needs the booster components."

Looking Ahead: Artemis Program's Future

The arrival and integration of the Artemis 2 core stage signify a major step forward in NASA's Artemis program, which aims to establish a sustainable human presence on the moon and eventually enable missions to Mars. The meticulous assembly and testing processes ensure that all systems are functioning optimally, which is critical for the safety and success of the mission.

As work continues on Artemis 2, preparations are also underway for future missions, including Artemis 3 and beyond. These missions will not only involve lunar landings but also the establishment of infrastructure such as lunar habitats and research stations, which will support long-term exploration and scientific research.

The collaboration between NASA, its contractors, and international partners highlights the global effort to push the boundaries of human space exploration. The Artemis program is set to be a cornerstone of space exploration in the coming decades, providing a platform for technological innovation, international cooperation, and scientific discovery.

The decision, announced on July 17, comes in response to significant development delays and cost overruns. Originally confirmed in 2021 with a projected cost of $433.5 million, the latest estimates saw the budget swell to $609.6 million, with a planned launch date in September 2025.

Reasons for the Cancellation

The VIPER mission faced numerous challenges, including persistent supply chain issues that delayed the delivery of key components. These delays, which began during the pandemic, were compounded by the complex nature of the rover's construction.

Joel Kearns, NASA’s deputy associate administrator for exploration in the Science Mission Directorate, explained that the rover’s construction, akin to building a small car from the inside out, was severely impacted by the late arrival of crucial components. “The delays occurred over and over for several key components,” he said, adding that these were small incremental delays rather than a single large one, making them harder to manage.

This led to repeated delays in assembly, integration, and testing. Kearns noted that many of the delayed components were essential parts of the rover's inner section, which further complicated the assembly process.

At a briefing, Nicky Fox, NASA associate administrator for science, highlighted the financial strain VIPER's escalating costs imposed on the agency. “The projected remaining expenses for VIPER would have resulted in either having to cancel or disrupt many other missions in our Commercial Lunar Payload Services line,” Fox said.

Therefore, NASA decided to terminate the VIPER mission to protect other projects within its budget constraints. This decision underscores the importance of maintaining a balanced and sustainable portfolio of missions, ensuring that resources are allocated efficiently across the agency’s various projects.

Financial Implications and Future Plans

Canceling the VIPER mission will save NASA at least $84 million. This figure could increase if the mission's launch had slipped beyond November 2025, requiring a delay of 9 to 12 months until favorable lighting conditions returned at the lunar south pole landing site.

Kearns acknowledged that while the rover is complete, it has only just begun environmental testing. The revised cost and schedule assumed that the rover would pass this testing without additional issues, which historically is rare in spacecraft development. “I will tell you that in general, spacecraft development system-level environmental testing does uncover problems that do need to be corrected, which would take more time and money,” Kearns said, indicating that unforeseen issues could further escalate costs and delays.

NASA plans to disassemble VIPER and reuse its instruments and components. However, the agency is open to proposals from American companies and international partners to fly the rover independently at no cost to NASA. Proposals are due by August 1, reflecting NASA’s willingness to explore alternative avenues for the mission’s scientific goals without incurring additional costs. This approach allows NASA to leverage existing investments while minimizing further financial risk.

Impact on Astrobotic and the Griffin Lander

VIPER was to be delivered to the moon aboard the Griffin lander, developed by Astrobotic Technology under a Commercial Lunar Payload Services (CLPS) task order worth $322 million. With the cancellation of VIPER, NASA will retain the task order for Griffin, repurposing it as a technology demonstrator.

The lander will carry a mass simulator instead of the rover to test its capacity for landing large payloads. This shift in mission objectives aims to preserve the investment in Griffin while adapting to the new circumstances.

John Thornton, CEO of Astrobotic, indicated that the company is considering alternative uses for the Griffin lander, such as testing its LunaGrid power generation service. Despite the setback, Thornton expressed optimism, stating, “I’m an eternal optimist. You kind of have to be in the space industry. I’m excited about what we can turn this into.”

Kearns and Thornton both emphasized the importance of the Griffin mission continuing, albeit in a modified capacity. NASA considered flying science payloads instead, but since the lander was designed for carrying a rover, it lacked the necessary accommodations and capabilities like power and communications for such payloads. “We believe that if we were to ask Astrobotic to make changes like that, it would further delay their schedule,” Kearns said. This pragmatic approach aims to avoid additional delays and costs while ensuring that the Griffin lander’s potential is fully realized.

NASA's Ongoing Lunar Exploration Efforts

NASA remains committed to studying lunar ice and other scientific objectives through alternative missions. Other landers and orbiters will perform many of the tasks initially planned for VIPER. While the mobility provided by VIPER will be missed, NASA's Lunar Terrain Vehicle, intended for crewed Artemis missions, will offer similar capabilities when it is delivered later this decade. This continuity in scientific exploration underscores NASA’s strategic approach to lunar exploration, ensuring that key objectives are met despite changes in specific mission plans.

The cancellation of the VIPER mission highlights the challenges and financial realities of space exploration. NASA’s decision underscores the need to balance ambitious scientific goals with practical budgetary constraints, ensuring the continued success and sustainability of its lunar exploration programs.

This careful balancing act is crucial for maintaining public and governmental support for space initiatives, demonstrating responsible stewardship of resources while pursuing groundbreaking scientific discoveries.

This core stage, meticulously constructed at the Michoud Assembly Facility in New Orleans, was loaded onto the Pegasus barge on July 16. This stage will now be transported to the Kennedy Space Center (KSC) in Florida, where it will undergo final preparations for the mission slated for no earlier than September 2025.

Rollout and Preparation

The core stage's journey from the Michoud Assembly Facility to the awaiting barge was a significant event, symbolizing the transition from manufacturing to launch readiness. According to John Honeycutt, NASA SLS program manager, “The delivery of the SLS core stage for Artemis 2 to Kennedy Space Center signals a shift from manufacturing to launch readiness as teams continue to make progress on hardware for all major elements for future SLS rockets.”

Once at KSC, the core stage will receive additional outfitting and will then be assembled with its two solid rocket boosters and the interim cryogenic upper stage in the Vehicle Assembly Building. This meticulous process ensures that all components are seamlessly integrated, readying the rocket for its crucial mission to launch astronauts around the moon.

Manufacturing Improvements and Future Plans

The assembly of the second core stage has benefited significantly from lessons learned during the construction of the first stage. Dave Dutcher, SLS program manager at Boeing, the vehicle’s prime contractor, noted, “This is our second one and there are a lot of lessons learned. It’s a much cleaner vehicle throughout the build and test than the first one.”

Boeing has fully implemented lean manufacturing techniques, optimizing production processes and supply chain management. These improvements include eliminating redundant tests and streamlining tasks performed in clean rooms. Dutcher explained, “We’ve also learned along the way that the most effective way to build this vehicle is doing as much as we can in the vertical,” emphasizing the efficiency of 360-degree access.

Final Assembly at Kennedy Space Center

Looking forward, Boeing and NASA plan to carry out more final assembly work for the core stages at the Kennedy Space Center, starting with Artemis 3.

This approach includes constructing the engine section in a clean room and conducting more vertical assembly work, which is expected to save a considerable amount of time.

Dutcher highlighted, “That’s a tremendous amount of time savings with just those two examples,” reflecting the continuous efforts to enhance the efficiency of the SLS assembly process.

Insights from the Rollout Event

The ceremonial rollout event in New Orleans was attended by hundreds of Michoud workers and their guests, celebrating the significant progress made in the Artemis program.

Joseph Pelfrey, director of NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center, addressed the crowd, stating, “For more than six decades, Marshall and Michoud have been a part of leading some of this nation's greatest achievements in space exploration, from the amazing accomplishments of the Apollo missions, through 135 shuttle missions, to the milestone that we're here today to celebrate.”

Pelfrey emphasized the collaborative effort and dedication of the teams involved, acknowledging the hard work of the engineers and technicians who have contributed to the construction of the SLS booster.

Next Steps for Artemis 2

As the core stage arrives at the Kennedy Space Center, it will undergo further checks and integration with other mission components, including the Orion spacecraft.

The Artemis 2 mission, featuring astronauts Reid Wiseman, Victor Glover, Christina Koch, and Jeremy Hansen, will mark the first time humans travel around the moon since the Apollo missions of the 1970s.

Wiseman, who witnessed the core stage rollout, expressed his excitement, stating, “We talk a lot about Artemis, about flying to the moon, and I think it gets lost sometimes that the hardware is here. The Orion spacecraft is at Kennedy Space Center.

Our boosters are at Kennedy Space Center, we just watched the core stage roll by. Its next stop is Kennedy Space Center, all the parts are coming together.”

This stage marks a crucial step toward the successful launch of Artemis 2, which aims to pave the way for future missions, including Artemis 3, intended to land astronauts on the lunar surface. The Artemis program represents a bold vision for the future of human space exploration, with plans to establish a permanent presence on the moon and eventually prepare for missions to Mars.

As Wiseman aptly put it, “When you actually look at the rocket, and you think about all the people here in Mississippi, in Louisiana, in Alabama, and then across the U.S. that have put this thing together, from dreaming it up to actually building it; it's what America is all about. I love it. It's wonderful.”

Gateway will serve as a crucial outpost for astronauts conducting scientific research and preparing for missions to the lunar South Pole and beyond.

Building Gateway: Key Modules and International Collaboration

The Habitation and Logistics Outpost (HALO), built by NASA commercial partner Northrop Grumman, is one of the four primary modules of Gateway.

Currently undergoing testing in Turin, Italy, HALO will provide living and working space for international teams of astronauts. This module features multiple docking ports, including one for a cargo spacecraft and the European Space Agency's (ESA) Lunar View module.

Other docking ports will accommodate the SpaceX Starship and Blue Origin's Blue Moon Human Landing Systems during the Artemis IV and V missions.

In addition to HALO, Gateway will initially launch into lunar orbit with the Power and Propulsion Element, provided by Maxar Space Systems. This component is crucial for the space station's mobility and power generation. The station will later expand with ESA's Lunar I-Hab and Lunar View modules, the Crew and Science Airlock from the Mohammed Bin Rashid Space Centre, advanced external robotics from the Canadian Space Agency (CSA), and critical hardware from the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA). NASA stated, "Gateway will launch to lunar orbit with the Power and Propulsion Element, provided by Maxar Space Systems, and later expand with ESA's Lunar I-Hab and Lunar View modules."

Gateway's Role in Scientific Exploration and Future Missions

Gateway is central to NASA's Artemis program, which aims to return humans to the lunar surface for scientific discovery and to pave the way for future missions to Mars. The space station will enable astronauts to explore the scientific mysteries of deep space and conduct experiments in a unique environment.

The presence of advanced laboratories and research facilities will allow for groundbreaking studies in lunar geology, biology, and space medicine. These experiments are essential for understanding the effects of long-duration space travel on the human body and developing technologies for sustained human presence on the Moon and Mars.

Moreover, Gateway will serve as a staging point for missions to the lunar South Pole, a region of high scientific interest due to the presence of water ice. This water ice could be used to produce oxygen and fuel, making it a vital resource for future lunar explorers.

International Partnerships and Technological Advancements

The construction and operation of Gateway involve collaboration between multiple international space agencies and commercial partners. This cooperative effort underscores the global commitment to exploring space and expanding human presence beyond Earth. By combining resources and expertise, these partnerships will ensure the success of Gateway and the missions it supports. The participation of international partners like ESA, CSA, JAXA, and the Mohammed Bin Rashid Space Centre brings diverse technological innovations and critical support to the project.

The international collaboration extends to the integration of advanced technologies, such as external robotics provided by CSA, which will enhance the station's capabilities for maintenance and scientific research. The Crew and Science Airlock, developed by the Mohammed Bin Rashid Space Centre, will facilitate spacewalks and the transfer of scientific instruments. This comprehensive approach to development and operation highlights the importance of international cooperation in achieving ambitious space exploration goals.

Gateway's Impact on Future Space Exploration

Gateway represents a significant milestone in human space exploration. As the first lunar space station, it will provide a platform for scientific research, technological advancements, and international cooperation. This station will enable sustained human presence on the Moon, supporting long-duration missions and serving as a testbed for the technologies needed for future Mars exploration. The ability to conduct continuous research and development in lunar orbit will accelerate our understanding of space environments and the challenges associated with deep space missions.

In conclusion, Gateway is poised to transform our approach to space exploration. It will be a pivotal outpost for missions to the Moon and Mars, fostering scientific discovery and technological innovation. As NASA and its partners prepare for the Artemis missions, Gateway will play an essential role in ensuring the success and sustainability of human space exploration efforts.

Set to orbit the Moon, the integrated spacecraft recently underwent its final rounds of testing and assembly to ensure it is fully equipped to handle the harsh conditions of space.

This phase is vital as it marks the culmination of years of development and testing aimed at making deep space exploration a reality for the current generation.

NASA's Orion Spacecraft Advances Toward Launch with Critical Assembly and Testing Milestone

On June 28, 2024, NASA's Orion spacecraft was carefully lifted out of the Final Assembly and System Testing cell, a critical step toward its eventual launch. This process involved extensive performance verification of its subsystems to confirm their operational integrity.

Technicians performed thorough checks for leaks in its propulsion systems, a task essential to ensuring that the spacecraft can maintain proper thrust and maneuverability in the vacuum of space.

These measures are part of a broader effort to validate the spacecraft's readiness for the demanding mission ahead, where every component must function flawlessly to ensure the safety of the crew.

Electromagnetic and Near-vacuum Testing

Following its removal from the testing cell, Orion was transported by a 30-ton crane into a newly renovated altitude chamber for electromagnetic testing. This step is critical to ensure the spacecraft's systems can withstand and operate effectively amid the electromagnetic environment of space.

The subsequent phase involves subjecting Orion to a near-vacuum environment by systematically removing air to create an area with extremely low pressure. This environment replicates the conditions the spacecraft will encounter during its lunar mission, where it must operate without the protective layer of Earth's atmosphere.

The data gathered from these tests will be instrumental in qualifying Orion for the Artemis II mission, providing engineers with insights into its performance under the extreme conditions of space.

Artemis II Mission Objectives

The Artemis II mission represents a significant leap forward in human space exploration, with the goal of sending astronauts around the Moon and setting the stage for future lunar exploration missions. The rigorous testing of the Orion spacecraft is a cornerstone of this mission, ensuring that all systems are robust and reliable.

This mission not only aims to return humans to the Moon but also to gather critical data that will inform subsequent missions, including potential landings on the lunar surface. As NASA advances with these meticulous preparations, the global community watches with anticipation, eager to witness humanity's next giant leap into the cosmos.

The Artemis II mission is a crucial step in NASA's broader Artemis program, which seeks to establish a sustainable human presence on the Moon by the end of the decade. This mission will test the life support, communication, and navigation systems of Orion, all of which are essential for future deep space exploration.

The success of Artemis II will pave the way for Artemis III, where astronauts will land on the lunar surface for the first time since 1972. The ongoing efforts reflect NASA's commitment to pushing the boundaries of human exploration and expanding our understanding of the universe.

Lunar Mobility and Surface Cargo Needs

The first white paper, titled “Lunar Mobility Drivers and Needs,” addresses the challenges and requirements for moving cargo and assets on the lunar surface. This includes considerations from landing sites to areas of use and factors that significantly impact mobility systems.

The paper outlines the need for robust mobility solutions to transport essential equipment, scientific instruments, and other assets across the rugged and varied terrain of the moon. It also discusses the importance of developing vehicles and technologies capable of withstanding the harsh lunar environment, including extreme temperatures and radiation.

The second paper, “Lunar Surface Cargo,” examines the projected needs and identifies current capability gaps for transporting cargo to the moon’s surface. This document delves into the logistical challenges of delivering large quantities of supplies, building materials, and other resources necessary for sustained human presence on the moon.

It highlights the importance of developing efficient and reliable cargo transport systems that can operate autonomously or with minimal human intervention. The paper also explores potential innovations in packaging, handling, and deploying cargo to ensure it reaches its intended destination safely and efficiently.

Strategic Importance and Collaborative Efforts

These white papers are part of NASA’s ongoing efforts to communicate essential information to its stakeholders, including U.S. industry, academia, international partners, and the NASA workforce. Typically, NASA releases a series of technical documents at the end of its annual analysis cycle, but these mid-cycle releases provide timely insights into critical areas of interest.

By sharing these findings, NASA aims to foster collaboration and innovation across the space exploration community. The documents serve as a foundation for discussions on how to address the identified challenges and leverage emerging technologies and capabilities to achieve mission objectives.

Under NASA’s Artemis campaign, the agency aims to establish a sustainable presence on the moon, including landing the first woman, the first person of color, and international partner astronauts on the lunar surface. These efforts are foundational for preparing human expeditions to Mars.

The Artemis program is designed to build a robust infrastructure on the moon that will support long-duration missions and serve as a testing ground for the technologies and procedures needed for Mars exploration. This includes the development of habitats, power systems, and life support technologies that can be scaled and adapted for use on Mars.

NASA's Future in Lunar and Martian Exploration

The release of these white papers highlights the ongoing work and planning required to achieve NASA’s ambitious goals. Moving forward, NASA will continue to refine its strategies and address the identified capability gaps to ensure the success of future lunar and Martian missions.

The agency plans to leverage the latest advancements in robotics, artificial intelligence, and autonomous systems to enhance the efficiency and safety of space operations. Additionally, NASA will focus on developing sustainable practices for resource utilization, such as in-situ resource utilization (ISRU) technologies, which enable the extraction and use of local materials to support human activities on the moon and Mars.

For more detailed information, the white papers can be accessed through NASA’s official channels, providing a deeper understanding of the challenges and solutions proposed for lunar and Mars exploration. These documents offer valuable insights into the technical and operational considerations that will shape the future of human spaceflight. They also serve as a roadmap for the continued development of capabilities that will enable humanity to explore and settle new frontiers.

These white papers underscore NASA's commitment to advancing human space exploration and addressing the complex logistical challenges of establishing a sustainable presence on the moon and preparing for future missions to Mars. By identifying and addressing the critical needs for mobility and cargo transport, NASA is laying the groundwork for a new era of exploration that will expand our understanding of the universe and inspire future generations of explorers.

The selected companies—Aerojet Rocketdyne, Blue Origin, Lockheed Martin, Northrop Grumman, Quantum Space, SpaceX, and Whittinghill Aerospace—will each receive up to $1.5 million for 90-day studies focused on alternative MSR approaches.

This initiative is part of NASA’s effort to reassess and potentially overhaul the current MSR strategy, which has been criticized for its projected cost of up to $11 billion and a timeline extending to 2040. By exploring "out of the box" solutions, NASA hopes to expedite the sample return process and reduce expenses.

Reassessing the Mars Sample Return Mission

The decision to seek new MSR strategies follows an independent assessment last September that cast doubt on the feasibility of the existing plan in terms of cost and schedule. The current approach is seen as both financially burdensome and time-consuming, necessitating a reevaluation to meet more practical and attainable objectives.

NASA Administrator Bill Nelson emphasized the mission's complexity and the necessity for a quicker, safer, and more cost-effective approach. The studies will explore various aspects of the MSR mission, including the Mars Ascent Vehicle (MAV), a critical component responsible for launching collected samples from the Martian surface into orbit.

Proposals from Aerojet Rocketdyne, Northrop Grumman, and Whittinghill Aerospace specifically target improvements to the MAV, while SpaceX proposes utilizing its Starship vehicle and Blue Origin considers leveraging components from the Artemis lunar exploration program.

The MAV is a significant element of the MSR mission due to its role in overcoming Mars’ gravity, which adds a layer of complexity and cost. Sandra Connelly, NASA’s deputy associate administrator for science, noted that the MAV is one of the key factors driving the mission's complexity and cost.

The studies aim to explore various propulsion technologies and designs that could make the MAV more efficient and reliable. Aerojet Rocketdyne’s focus on a high-performance liquid-fueled MAV and Northrop Grumman’s examination of high Technology Readiness Level (TRL) propulsion systems exemplify the range of innovative approaches being considered.

Diverse Approaches from Leading Space Companies

Each of the selected companies brings a unique perspective and expertise to the table. Lockheed Martin, renowned for its experience in building spacecraft that have successfully landed on Mars, will perform rapid mission design studies for MSR. Northrop Grumman, a key partner in developing the current solid-fueled MAV, aims to apply its existing capabilities to streamline the sample return process.

Aerojet Rocketdyne, best known for its rocket propulsion systems, plans to study a high-performance liquid-fueled MAV using mature propulsion technologies to enhance affordability and schedule adherence.

SpaceX, with its ambitious long-term vision for Mars, is also a significant player in this initiative. The company’s study, titled "Enabling Mars Sample Return with Starship," leverages its development of the Starship rocket, which is designed for deep space missions, including potential manned missions to Mars.

SpaceX’s involvement highlights the potential for utilizing the Starship to not only deliver cargo to Mars but also to facilitate the return of samples to Earth. Elon Musk, SpaceX’s founder, has expressed confidence in the Starship's capability to land on Mars, although such milestones remain aspirational and contingent on further technological advancements and successful test flights.

Blue Origin, another major contender in the commercial space sector, will explore the integration of components from the Artemis program into the MSR mission. This approach underscores the potential synergy between lunar and Martian exploration efforts, potentially reducing costs and leveraging existing technologies. Blue Origin’s proposal, titled "Leveraging Artemis for Mars Sample Return," aims to utilize the Space Launch System (SLS) and the lunar Gateway as part of the MSR mission architecture.

Supporting Studies from NASA Centers and Partners

In addition to the industry studies, NASA is supporting similar research conducted by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), Applied Physics Laboratory (APL), and several NASA centers. These studies will run concurrently with the industry efforts, adhering to a mid-July start, with interim and final reports due in 45 and 90 days, respectively.

The results will inform NASA’s decisions on potential revisions to the MSR architecture, with a target to establish a definitive path forward by early 2025. NASA's goals include reducing the overall and peak annual spending on the MSR mission while potentially accelerating the timeline for returning samples to Earth.

The involvement of smaller companies like Quantum Space and Whittinghill Aerospace adds another layer of innovation and diversity to the initiative. Quantum Space, founded by entrepreneur Kam Ghaffarian, is described as a space infrastructure company and will conduct a study titled "Quantum Anchor Leg Mars Sample Return Study." This study could potentially focus on the final stage of returning samples to Earth, analogous to the anchor leg in a relay race. Whittinghill Aerospace, with its focus on a single-stage MAV, aims to offer a streamlined and efficient solution for launching samples from Mars.

The Path Forward for Mars Sample Return

NASA’s approach to commissioning these studies reflects a comprehensive effort to explore all possible avenues for improving the MSR mission. Nicola Fox, head of NASA’s science directorate, emphasized the need for "out of the box" concepts to achieve the ambitious goal of returning samples by the 2030s rather than the previously projected 2040 or later. The diversity of proposals and the inclusion of both established aerospace giants and innovative newcomers highlight NASA’s commitment to leveraging a wide range of expertise and technologies.

The culmination of these studies will provide NASA with a wealth of data and potential solutions, allowing the agency to craft a new approach for the Mars Sample Return mission. This new strategy will likely incorporate a mix of elements from various proposals, integrating industry innovations with NASA’s existing capabilities and the European Space Agency’s contributions. The collaborative effort underscores the international and multi-faceted nature of space exploration, paving the way for groundbreaking discoveries and advancements in planetary science.

This ambitious endeavor involves a series of tests and preparations to ensure that all systems are ready for lunar exploration. One of the key aspects of these preparations is the evaluation of new spacesuits and hardware that will be used during Artemis missions.

Recently, astronauts Doug “Wheels” Wheelock and Peggy Whitson donned spacesuits developed by Axiom Space to interact with and assess the full-scale developmental hardware of SpaceX’s Starship Human Landing System (HLS). This marked the first time astronauts in pressurized suits engaged with a test version of Starship HLS hardware, representing a significant milestone in the Artemis program.

Comprehensive Testing of New Technologies

The day-long test, conducted at SpaceX headquarters in Hawthorne, California, provided invaluable feedback on various aspects of the Starship HLS. The evaluation focused on the layout, physical design, mechanical assemblies, and clearances inside the spacecraft, as well as the flexibility and agility of the spacesuits, known as the AxEMU (Axiom Extravehicular Mobility Unit).

The test began with Wheelock and Whitson putting on the spacesuits in a full-scale airlock situated on Starship’s airlock deck. The suits were then pressurized using a system outside the HLS airlock that provided air, electrical power, cooling, and communications to the astronauts. Each AxEMU also included a full-scale model of the Portable Life Support System, or “backpack,” essential for lunar operations.

During the test, NASA and SpaceX engineers evaluated the placement of mobility aids, such as handrails for traversing the hatch. Another set of aids, straps hanging from the ceiling, assisted the astronauts when entering and removing the AxEMU suits. The astronauts practiced interacting with a control panel in the airlock to ensure that controls could be reached and activated while wearing gloves. According to Logan Kennedy, lead for surface activities in NASA’s HLS Program, the astronauts successfully operated the control panel and performed the tasks necessary for lunar surface operations.

Preparing for Lunar Surface Operations

The suited astronauts also walked from Starship’s airlock deck to an elevator built for testing purposes. During Artemis missions, this elevator will transport astronauts and their equipment from the deck to the lunar surface and back. Wheelock and Whitson practiced opening a gate to enter the elevator and evaluated the dexterity of the AxEMU suit gloves. The steps taken by the astronauts through full-scale builds of the Starship hatch, airlock, airlock deck, and elevator may have been small, but they marked an important step toward preparing for a new generation of moonwalks as part of Artemis.

For the Artemis III mission, SpaceX will provide the Starship HLS that will dock with Orion in lunar orbit and take two astronauts to and from the surface of the Moon. Axiom Space is providing a new generation of spacesuits for moonwalks designed to fit a wider range of astronauts. These collaborations highlight the integration of new technologies and partnerships that are crucial for the success of deep space missions.

The Path to Future Exploration

With Artemis, NASA will explore more of the Moon than ever before, learning how to live and work away from Earth and preparing for future human exploration of Mars. NASA’s Space Launch System (SLS) rocket, exploration ground systems, and Orion spacecraft, along with the human landing system, next-generation spacesuits, Gateway lunar space station, and future rovers, form the foundation for deep space exploration. The comprehensive testing and evaluation of these systems ensure that astronauts are equipped with the safest and most effective tools for their missions.

The steps taken by Wheelock and Whitson in testing the Starship hardware and new spacesuits represent significant progress toward the realization of the Artemis program's goals. As NASA and its partners continue to refine and test these technologies, each milestone brings humanity closer to its next giant leap on the Moon and, eventually, Mars.

This event, scheduled for mid-July, will take place at NASA’s Michoud Assembly Facility in New Orleans, where the towering 212-foot core stage has been assembled.

Following the rollout, the core stage will be meticulously loaded onto NASA’s Pegasus barge for transport to the Kennedy Space Center in Florida. This event is critical in the lead-up to the Artemis II mission, which aims to return humans to the Moon and eventually establish a sustainable lunar presence.

NASA's Event Details and Media Participation

The upcoming rollout event is an excellent opportunity for media representatives to gain a comprehensive understanding of the Artemis II mission preparations. Attendees will have the chance to capture high-quality images and video footage of the impressive core stage as it is transferred onto the Pegasus barge.

The event will also feature insightful remarks from NASA and industry leaders, who will discuss the mission's importance and the advanced technology employed. Moreover, subject matter experts from NASA and its Artemis industry partners will be available for interviews, offering in-depth information and answering questions.

These interactions will provide journalists with a wealth of material for detailed reporting. Additional information regarding the specific timing of the event and interview opportunities will be provided closer to the date. The event is open to both U.S. and international media, with application deadlines set for June 14 for international media and July 3 for U.S. media. Interested media must adhere to NASA’s media credentialing policy, available online.

NASA also shared the announcement on social media, highlighting the significance of the event:

Exciting news! @NASA will roll the fully assembled core stage for the #Artemis II @NASA_SLS rocket out of #NASAMichoud in mid-July. The 212-foot-tall stage will be loaded on the agency’s Pegasus barge for delivery to @NASAKennedy.

LEARN MORE >> https://t.co/JbNrUlJbGf

— NASA Marshall (@NASA_Marshall) June 7, 2024

Significance of the Artemis II Mission and SLS Rocket

The Artemis II mission marks a crucial step in NASA’s endeavor to explore deep space and establish a long-term human presence on the Moon. The SLS rocket's core stage, a technological marvel equipped with four RS-25 engines, will generate over 2 million pounds of thrust.

This immense power is essential for launching the Orion spacecraft and its crew of astronauts towards the Moon. Upon arrival at the Kennedy Space Center, teams from NASA’s Exploration Ground Systems Program will complete the final outfitting of the core stage. This complex process involves integrating various components and systems essential for the rocket's performance during launch. Following this, the stage will undergo final preparations for stacking and integration with other launch system elements.

Scheduled for a September 2025 launch, Artemis II will be the first crewed mission under NASA’s Artemis program. It will orbit the Moon, testing spacecraft systems and paving the way for future lunar landings and deep space exploration.

Collaborative Efforts in Deep Space Exploration

The successful development, assembly, and transportation of the core stage underscore the collaborative nature of this ambitious project. NASA has teamed up with Boeing, the lead contractor for the core stage, and Aerojet Rocketdyne, an L3 Harris Technologies company responsible for the RS-25 engines. This partnership exemplifies the multidisciplinary approach required to achieve the mission's objectives.

The Artemis campaign aims to land the first woman, the first person of color, and the first international partner astronaut on the Moon. These goals reflect NASA's commitment to diversity and international collaboration in space exploration. The SLS rocket, with its unmatched power and capabilities, is central to this vision.

Designed to carry the Orion spacecraft, astronauts, and essential supplies to the Moon in a single launch, the SLS is vital for the success of future missions. These missions include establishing a sustainable lunar outpost and preparing for the eventual human exploration of Mars.

Led by visionary entrepreneur Elon Musk, this accomplishment signals significant progress for the ambitious project after previous attempts ended in explosions. The success of this test flight underscores SpaceX's commitment to developing a reliable system for transporting astronauts to destinations like the Moon, Mars, and beyond.

Overcoming Previous Failures

The Starship program has faced numerous challenges and setbacks since its inception. The first three test flights were marked by dramatic failures, with each launch resulting in explosions.

The inaugural test flight in April 2023 ended just four minutes after launch when telemetry data revealed multiple engine failures, leading to the activation of the flight termination system.

Subsequent tests in November 2023 and March 2024 saw improvements, with the rocket surviving longer and achieving key milestones such as stage separation and reaching space, but ultimately still ending in failures. Despite these setbacks, each test provided valuable data that helped SpaceX refine the Starship's design and operation.

Successful Fourth Test Flight

On June 6, 2024, the fourth test flight marked a turning point. The Starship lifted off from SpaceX’s private Starbase site in Boca Chica, Texas, at 8:50 a.m. ET. The launch saw 32 of the 33 engines in the Super Heavy booster igniting properly. Seven minutes into the flight, the booster successfully separated and splashed down in the Gulf of Mexico as planned.

The Starship’s upper stage continued its journey, reaching orbit with all six of its engines functioning as intended. One of the critical objectives of this flight was to test the thermal protection around the steering flaps during atmospheric re-entry. "One of the key questions is—does that seal work? We think it will work, but it may not work," said Elon Musk, highlighting the importance of this component.

Achieving Atmospheric Re-Entry

The thermal protection system was put to the test as the Starship re-entered Earth’s atmosphere. The heat shields took a significant beating, with debris from one shield even impacting a live-streaming external camera. Despite this, the Starship managed to re-enter successfully, demonstrating the robustness of its thermal protection.

Roughly one hour and six minutes into the flight, Starship completed its first-ever landing burn and splashed down into the Indian Ocean.

This successful re-entry and splashdown were met with raucous applause from the SpaceX team, marking a significant achievement in the program's development.

Implications for NASA and Future Missions

This successful test is particularly good news for NASA, which awarded SpaceX a $2.9 billion contract in 2021 to develop the first commercial human lander for its Artemis III mission to the Moon, slated for 2026.

The Starship's ability to complete a full test flight and achieve a controlled splashdown is a major step forward in demonstrating its viability for crewed missions. SpaceX's progressive improvement with each test flight underscores the company’s iterative approach to engineering, where each failure is a learning opportunity leading to eventual success.

Looking ahead, SpaceX will continue to refine the Starship design based on data from this successful test. The company aims to make further improvements to the thermal protection system and other components to ensure the reliability and safety of the spacecraft for future missions.

The next steps will likely involve additional test flights to validate these enhancements and further demonstrate the Starship's capabilities. With NASA's Artemis missions on the horizon and plans for Mars exploration, the success of the Starship program is crucial for the future of human spaceflight. As SpaceX continues to push the boundaries of aerospace technology, each successful test brings humanity closer to a new era of space exploration.

The Starship and its Super Heavy booster are scheduled to lift off from SpaceX's Starbase facility in South Texas at 8 a.m. EDT (1200 GMT). The launch window extends for 120 minutes, allowing flexibility in timing.

Objectives and Mission Details

This test flight aims to achieve several key milestones that previous flights did not. The primary objective is to demonstrate the ability to return and reuse the Starship and Super Heavy. This includes testing the opening and closing of the payload door in space and executing a reentry from space.

Unlike previous tests, which primarily focused on achieving orbit, this flight will also test the rocket's reentry capabilities, a crucial step toward making space travel more economical and sustainable. SpaceX will offer a live webcast of the launch starting at 7:30 a.m. EDT, live-streamed exclusively on their X (formerly Twitter) account and on Space.com.

The @SpaceX Starship launch tomorrow morning will be live-streamed exclusively on 𝕏!

— Elon Musk (@elonmusk) June 5, 2024

Challenges and Progress

SpaceX's Starship has faced several challenges in its development. The first three test flights ended in failures, with the rockets either exploding or crashing upon return. Despite these setbacks, each test provided valuable data that has been used to improve the design and functionality of the Starship.

The first test in April 2023 saw the rocket explode seconds after launch, damaging the launch pad. The second test experienced a failure shortly after separation, leading to another explosion. The third test, although reaching space, ended with both the Starship and Super Heavy breaking apart upon reentry. These failures, described by SpaceX as "rapid unscheduled disassemblies," have been pivotal in refining the technology and preparing for the upcoming test.

Importance of Reusability

Reusability is central to SpaceX's vision for the future of space travel. Historically, space exploration has been prohibitively expensive, limiting access to wealthy nations. By developing reusable rockets, SpaceX aims to significantly reduce the costs associated with space travel, making it more accessible and enabling a broader range of missions.

The Starship is designed to carry up to 100 people on long-duration interplanetary flights, support satellite deployment, and facilitate the development of a moon base. This technology is also crucial for NASA's plans to return astronauts to the moon under the Artemis program.

Competition and Collaboration

For nearly a decade, SpaceX has been in competition with Boeing to develop a space taxi service for astronauts as part of NASA's Commercial Crew Program. While SpaceX has successfully been shuttling astronauts to space since 2020 with its Crew Dragon capsule, Boeing has faced numerous delays with its Starliner program.

On Wednesday, Boeing launched its first crewed test of the Starliner rocket, carrying two NASA astronauts to the International Space Station (ISS). This milestone for Boeing highlights the competitive yet collaborative nature of the current space industry, with multiple companies contributing to the broader goal of expanding human presence in space.

Watching the Launch

Space enthusiasts can watch the Starship Flight 4 launch online. SpaceX will stream the event live on its X account, starting 30 minutes before liftoff. Additional coverage and live views of the launchpad will be available on NASASpaceflight.com's YouTube channel. For those in the vicinity of Boca Chica, Texas, public beaches such as South Padre Island offer clear views of the launch. The flight is expected to last just over an hour if all goes according to plan, with the Super Heavy booster performing a controlled splashdown in the Gulf of Mexico.

If weather or technical issues delay the launch, SpaceX has backup windows on June 7 and June 8. These backup days are crucial as they provide flexibility to ensure optimal launch conditions. Public advisories from Cameron County indicate that beach closures will be in effect during the launch window to ensure public safety and manage crowd control.

Looking Ahead

As SpaceX continues to refine the Starship, the goal of achieving a fully reusable rocket system comes closer to reality. Elon Musk has emphasized the importance of developing a reusable heat shield, a technology that has not yet been perfected. Achieving this would be a significant milestone in making space travel more sustainable. The success of Starship Flight 4 will bring SpaceX one step closer to realizing its vision of making space accessible for exploration, commercial use, and even tourism.

The Starship rocket is integral to SpaceX’s long-term plans, which include missions to Mars and beyond. This test flight is a crucial step toward proving the viability of Starship for deep space missions. NASA has already selected Starship to land astronauts on the moon as part of the Artemis program, with a targeted landing date in 2026. Success in these tests will solidify Starship’s role in future lunar missions and potentially pave the way for human exploration of Mars.

This test flight, scheduled for Thursday, marks a significant milestone in SpaceX’s efforts to develop a fully reusable spacecraft capable of carrying humans to the moon, Mars, and beyond.

The Starship, the most powerful launch vehicle ever built, will take off from the company’s private Starbase facility in Boca Chica, Texas, during a 120-minute launch window that opens at 8 a.m. ET. The event will be livestreamed on SpaceX’s website about 30 minutes before liftoff.

FAA's Conditions and SpaceX's Preparations

The FAA granted the launch license on Tuesday, confirming that SpaceX had met all safety and other licensing requirements for this test flight.

The agency outlined three scenarios involving Starship’s entry into the atmosphere that would not necessitate an investigation if the vehicle is lost: a failure of a thermal shield, some loss of control of the vehicle in midflight, and the failure of an engine during a landing burn.

The FAA stated, "If a different anomaly occurs with the Starship vehicle, an investigation may be warranted as well as if an anomaly occurs with the Super Heavy booster rocket."

If SpaceX chooses to execute an uncontrolled entry, it must communicate that decision to the FAA prior to launch. This agreement suggests that SpaceX has identified likely failure modes and agreed with the FAA on handling them to streamline the testing process.

Previous Test Flights

SpaceX’s journey with the Starship has been marked by a series of test flights, each contributing valuable insights into the development of the spacecraft. The first test flight in April 2023 ended in an explosion shortly after liftoff, destroying both the spacecraft and its launch pad. This initial setback did not deter SpaceX; instead, it highlighted critical areas for improvement.

The second test flight, conducted in November 2023, also failed to reach space, with the vehicle experiencing issues that led to its destruction before completing its intended objectives. Despite these challenges, the company embraced these failures as learning opportunities. "We’re continuing to rapidly develop Starship, putting flight hardware in a flight environment to learn as quickly as possible," SpaceX noted.

The third test flight in March 2024 was more successful, achieving several key milestones before breaking apart after reentry. This flight demonstrated Starship’s potential, as it reached space and gathered crucial data that informed subsequent design and procedural adjustments. Each flight builds on the lessons learned from its predecessors, aligning with SpaceX’s "rapid spiral development" approach, which involves building and testing prototypes quickly to accelerate the learning curve.

Enhancements and Lessons from Previous Flights

For the fourth flight, SpaceX has made multiple software and hardware upgrades to the Starship to incorporate lessons learned from the previous flights. One major enhancement includes improvements to the thermal protection system to better withstand the intense heat of reentry.

The propulsion system has also been upgraded to enhance reliability and performance during the critical phases of launch and landing. Additionally, SpaceX has refined the flight software to ensure more robust handling of flight dynamics and control scenarios that were problematic in earlier tests.

In response to the issues faced during the second test flight, SpaceX has reinforced the structural integrity of both the Starship and the Super Heavy booster. The launch pad infrastructure has also undergone significant modifications to prevent the kind of damage experienced during the first test flight. These upgrades are designed to mitigate the risk of catastrophic failure and to enhance the overall safety and success rate of future missions.

"The primary objectives will be executing a landing burn and soft splashdown in the Gulf of Mexico with the Super Heavy booster, and achieving a controlled entry of Starship," according to SpaceX. These improvements are expected to significantly increase the chances of a successful flight and recovery, bringing SpaceX closer to its goal of a fully reusable spacecraft.

Significance for Future Space Exploration

Much is riding on the eventual success of the Starship program. SpaceX CEO Elon Musk has repeatedly emphasized the importance of Starship to the company’s mission of putting humans on Mars. Furthermore, Starship has been selected by NASA as the vehicle to land astronauts on the moon for the first time in over five decades as part of the Artemis program. This program is part of a broader competition with China to establish a permanent presence on the moon and set precedents for future deep-space exploration.

The fourth flight of Starship aims to advance the goal of creating a fully reusable transportation system designed to carry crew and cargo to Earth orbit, the moon, Mars, and beyond. "We’re continuing to rapidly develop Starship, putting flight hardware in a flight environment to learn as quickly as possible," SpaceX stated.

As SpaceX continues to iterate and improve its designs, each test brings the company closer to achieving its ambitious vision for space travel. The world watches with anticipation as SpaceX pushes the boundaries of what is possible in space exploration, striving to make space more accessible and pave the way for future interplanetary missions.

This mission, which aims to collect and return the first samples from this remote region, represents a significant leap forward in understanding the moon's composition and history.

A New Chapter in Lunar Exploration

The Chang'e-6 probe successfully took off from the moon's far side early Tuesday Beijing time, carrying approximately 2 kilograms (4.4 pounds) of lunar rocks and soil. These samples were collected using an advanced mechanical arm and drill over two days.

The probe landed in the South Pole-Aitken Basin, the moon's oldest and one of the largest impact craters in the solar system, formed around 4 billion years ago. This region is of great interest to scientists due to its unique geological features and the potential for discovering new insights into the moon's formation and evolution.

In addition to collecting samples, the Chang'e-6 mission captured an iconic image that holds both scientific and symbolic significance. The Chinese National Space Administration (CNSA) released a photo showing the drilled surface in a shape resembling the Chinese character “zhong,” meaning “middle” in English and the first character in the Chinese word for “China.”

This image has been trending on China's Weibo platform, reflecting national pride and the mission's success. The probe also displayed the Chinese national flag on the lunar surface, further emphasizing China's growing capabilities in space technology.

Technological Innovations and Challenges

The Chang'e-6 mission showcases several technological breakthroughs. The probe withstood extreme temperatures on the moon's far side and relied on the Queqiao-2 satellite for communication, as this region is out of direct contact with Earth. This satellite, launched into lunar orbit in March, played a critical role in ensuring the mission's success. Additionally, in a symbolic act, the probe raised the Chinese national flag on the lunar surface, highlighting China's growing prowess in space technology.

The samples collected by Chang'e-6 will be stored in a metal vacuum container designed to preserve their integrity during the journey back to Earth. The return journey is expected to take about three weeks, with a landing projected in China's Inner Mongolia region around June 25.

Strategic Goals and Future Missions

The Chang'e-6 mission is part of China's broader strategy to expand its lunar exploration capabilities and establish a human presence on the moon by 2030. This mission follows the successful Chang'e-5 mission in 2020, which collected samples from the moon's near side. By targeting the far side of the moon, China aims to gain a comprehensive understanding of the lunar surface and its resources.

The long-term goal of these missions is to build a research base at the moon's south pole, a region believed to contain water ice. Access to water would significantly enhance the feasibility of establishing a permanent human presence on the moon, supporting both scientific research and potential future colonization efforts.

Global Context and Competitive Landscape

China's achievements in lunar exploration come amid increasing global interest in the moon. Countries such as India, Japan, Russia, and the United States are all advancing their lunar programs, focusing on securing access to lunar resources and paving the way for deep-space exploration. For instance, NASA plans to return astronauts to the moon by 2026 through the Artemis-3 mission, which aims to establish a sustainable human presence on the lunar surface.

The Chang'e-6 mission is not only a scientific endeavor but also a strategic move in the new "space race." By successfully returning samples from the moon's far side, China is positioning itself as a leader in space exploration and technology.

Scientific Impact and Global Collaboration of Chang'e-6's Mission

The samples collected by Chang'e-6 are expected to provide critical insights into the moon's geology and the history of the solar system. Initially, Chinese scientists will analyze the samples, with international researchers gaining access at a later stage. This collaborative approach will enhance the global scientific community's understanding of the moon and its potential for future exploration.

Professor John Pernet-Fisher, a lunar geology specialist at the University of Manchester, highlighted the importance of these samples. He noted that analyzing rocks from a completely different area of the moon could answer fundamental questions about planetary formation and evolution.

As China's Chang'e-6 probe continues its journey back to Earth, the mission stands as a testament to the nation's rapid advancements in space technology and its strategic vision for the future of lunar exploration. The successful return of the samples will mark a significant milestone, providing valuable data and reinforcing China's position as a leading space power.

The delay comes as SpaceX continues to work on perfecting its technology, ensuring that the next flight test will meet the high standards required for such an ambitious project.

New Launch Date and Time

SpaceX tweeted about the revised launch date, stating that the fourth flight test of the Starship is now tentatively scheduled for June 6.

Flight 4 of Starship is now targeted to launch as early as June 6, pending regulatory approvalhttps://t.co/XjreI7nQOp pic.twitter.com/Pgg0IqlP24

— SpaceX (@SpaceX) June 1, 2024

The tweet emphasized that the launch window will open as early as 7 a.m. CDT on Thursday, June 6. This delay provides SpaceX with additional time to finalize the necessary preparations and obtain regulatory approval from the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), which is crucial for the mission's success and safety.

Details of the Upcoming Launch

The Starship launch vehicle, comprising the Starship spacecraft and the Super Heavy rocket, is the world's most powerful launch vehicle. Standing at 121 meters tall and weighing approximately 5,000 tonnes, the system represents a significant leap forward in spaceflight technology. The upcoming test aims to achieve several critical milestones, including a soft splashdown of the Super Heavy booster in the Gulf of Mexico and a controlled re-entry and splashdown of the Starship in the Indian Ocean.

During the previous flight test on March 14, the spacecraft experienced a failure during re-entry, resulting in the vehicle breaking apart instead of successfully splashing down in the Indian Ocean. Similarly, the booster also failed to achieve a soft splashdown in the Gulf of Mexico. These setbacks have prompted SpaceX to implement significant software and hardware upgrades to improve the chances of success in this next test.

Enhancements and Objectives

SpaceX has made several enhancements to the Starship system based on lessons learned from the previous tests. These improvements include better fuel filtering systems and additional second-stage thrusters to provide redundancy during re-entry.

The fourth flight will focus on demonstrating the capability of the Super Heavy first stage and the Starship second stage to return to Earth for a powered soft landing. Although no actual landings will be attempted this time, there will be a landing burn and a soft splashdown in the Gulf of Mexico for the Super Heavy booster, while the Starship will aim for a controlled re-entry and splashdown in the Indian Ocean.

Significance of SpaceX's Starship Program

The success of the Starship program is crucial not only for SpaceX but also for NASA's Artemis program, which aims to return humans to the moon for the first time since the Apollo missions. The last crewed lunar mission, Apollo 17, occurred in 1972, and NASA is relying on the advancements made by SpaceX to achieve its goal of landing humans back on the moon. The development and testing of the Starship system are vital steps toward making deep space exploration more accessible and sustainable.

The Starship has already undergone three flight tests, each providing valuable data and insights. The first flight ended with the rocket being blown up for safety reasons three minutes into the flight. The second flight saw the first stage suffer engine failure, and the second stage exploded at a height of 93 miles (150 km) after losing telemetry. The third flight showed more promise but ultimately failed due to issues with the return engines and attitude control during re-entry.

How to Watch the Launch

For those interested in watching the launch, SpaceX will livestream the event on its website and on its social media platforms, including X (formerly known as Twitter). This provides an excellent opportunity for space enthusiasts to witness the progress of SpaceX’s ambitious Starship program.

The livestream will offer real-time insights into the launch process, allowing viewers to experience the excitement and challenges of space exploration firsthand.

Beijing time on June 2, 2024, marks the second successful far-side landing for China, following the Chang'e 4 mission in January 2019. The Chang'e 6 mission aims to collect and return lunar soil and rock samples to Earth, providing researchers with unprecedented insights into the moon's far side.

Details About the Landing

The Chang'e 6 mission's primary objective is to gather samples from the moon's far side, an area that poses significant exploration challenges due to its difficult terrain and communication hurdles. The landing took place within the giant South Pole-Aitken Basin, one of the largest and oldest impact craters on the moon, offering a unique opportunity to study lunar materials that could date back over 4 billion years.

At the scheduled time, the Chang'e 6 lander touched down softly in the pre-selected Apollo Crater. The mission's success relied heavily on the advanced technologies and engineering solutions implemented by the China National Space Administration (CNSA). The lander is equipped with a mechanical arm and a drill designed to collect approximately 4.4 pounds (2 kilograms) of lunar soil and rock from both the surface and depths of up to 6.5 feet (2 meters).

Once the samples are collected, they will be placed into a specially designed container and launched into lunar orbit by a rocket that descended with the lander. The sample container will then rendezvous with the Chang'e 6 orbiter, which will carry the precious cargo back to Earth. The reentry capsule is expected to land in China's Inner Mongolia region around June 25, 2024, where scientists will begin their analysis of the returned material.

The mission's success underscores China's growing capabilities in space exploration and sets the stage for future missions that aim to further our understanding of the moon and its potential for supporting human activities.

Scientific Significance and Comparisons with Chang'e 5

The Chang'e 6 mission is set to provide valuable scientific data by returning samples from the moon's far side, an area known for its rugged terrain and lack of flat landing sites. The South Pole-Aitken Basin, the landing site, is the oldest and largest impact crater on the moon, formed over 4 billion years ago. This makes it a key location for understanding the early history and evolution of the moon.

Researchers will compare the Chang'e 6 samples with those collected by the Chang'e 5 mission from the near side of the moon in 2020. The near side features dark volcanic seas known as maria, which are rare on the far side. By studying the differences between these samples, scientists hope to gain insights into the geological history and development of the lunar surface.

Broader Implications and Future Missions for China

The successful landing of Chang'e 6 underscores China's growing capabilities and ambitions in space exploration. The mission is part of a broader lunar exploration program named after the Chinese moon goddess, Chang'e. Previous missions have included orbiters, landers, and rovers, progressively increasing in complexity and scope.

Looking ahead, China plans to launch Chang'e 7 in 2026 to explore the moon's south polar region, which is believed to contain substantial water ice deposits. Chang'e 8, scheduled for 2028, will focus on in-situ resource utilization, testing technologies for using lunar materials to build structures. These robotic missions pave the way for China's goal of sending astronauts to the moon by 2030 and establishing an International Lunar Research Station in collaboration with international partners.

International Context and Rivalry

China's advancements in lunar exploration come amid a backdrop of growing international competition in space. The United States, under its Artemis program, aims to return astronauts to the moon by late 2026 and establish a sustainable presence. NASA's efforts, however, have faced delays and challenges, particularly with the development and launch of new spacecraft and rockets.

The rivalry extends beyond the U.S. to include other nations such as Japan and India, which are also making significant strides in space exploration. China's success with Chang'e 6 not only demonstrates its technical prowess but also highlights its strategic ambitions to become a leading spacefaring nation.

As China and other nations continue to push the boundaries of lunar exploration, the coming years promise to yield new discoveries and technological advancements, furthering our understanding of the moon and its potential for future human exploration.

This initiative is critical for the success of future lunar missions, including the highly anticipated Artemis program, which aims to return humans to the lunar surface. With a renewed global interest in lunar exploration, including missions from China, India, and private companies, a unified lunar timekeeping system is essential to coordinate the activities of various international and private entities efficiently.

The Urgency of Lunar Timekeeping

The challenge of establishing a lunar time zone arises from the moon's unique environment. Unlike Earth, where time zones are based on a 24-hour rotation cycle, the moon's day-night cycle spans approximately 29.5 Earth days. This discrepancy requires a fundamentally different approach to timekeeping.

Scientists at NASA and ESA are exploring the possibility of basing lunar time on Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), which is used for scientific and military purposes on Earth. However, they are also considering the creation of a new time scale tailored specifically to the lunar environment and its operational needs.

The White House's Role in the Initiative

The push to establish a lunar time zone has received significant support from the highest levels of the U.S. government. A recent memo from the White House directed NASA to develop a comprehensive plan for this new time scale by December 31, emphasizing its foundational role in the renewed U.S. efforts to explore the lunar surface.

The memo also set a target for NASA to implement this system by the end of 2026, aligning with the timeline for returning astronauts to the moon for the first time in five decades. This directive underscores the strategic importance of precise timekeeping in achieving the nation's lunar exploration goals.

Overcoming Technical and Operational Hurdles

Developing a lunar time zone involves addressing numerous technical and operational challenges. One major issue is the need for precise navigation and communication systems that ensure accurate timekeeping and synchronization across different missions.

The moon's prolonged day-night cycle and the absence of natural timekeeping references further complicate this task. Achieving consensus among international missions, each with its own timekeeping preferences, adds another layer of complexity. The synchronization of time is vital for navigation, communication, and scientific experiments, making it foundational for all lunar operations.

Implementing the Lunar Time Scale

To implement a lunar time zone, NASA and ESA are developing advanced technologies for precise timekeeping. This includes the use of atomic clocks, renowned for their long-term stability, and crystal oscillators, which provide short-term stability. The synchronization of time is crucial for various aspects of lunar operations.

Accurate timekeeping will underpin the infrastructure necessary for missions, allowing seamless coordination with Earth-based activities. This initiative will support the Artemis program's goal of landing the first woman and the next man on the moon by 2024 and establishing a sustainable human presence by the end of the decade.

The Future of Lunar Exploration

The establishment of a lunar time zone represents a significant step toward facilitating international collaboration and ensuring the success of multi-national lunar missions. As interest in lunar exploration grows, a standardized timekeeping system will be essential for coordinating activities across different countries and private entities.

This framework will not only support the Artemis program but also pave the way for future missions to Mars and beyond. By addressing the challenges of timekeeping on the moon, scientists will gain valuable insights that can be applied to future space exploration endeavors.

Navigating the Complexities of Lunar Time

The need for a lunar time zone is underscored by the unique conditions on the moon. The moon's equator experiences roughly 14 days of sunlight followed by 14 days of darkness, unlike the consistent cycle of day and night on Earth. This necessitates a different approach to timekeeping, which must account for the moon's distinct day-night cycle.

Additionally, communication between Earth and the moon involves a time delay of about 1.28 seconds each way, which must be considered in the design of the timekeeping system. Managing and converting data between Earth time and lunar time will require robust systems to handle time conversions seamlessly.

Creating a lunar time zone is a complex yet essential endeavor that will support the next era of lunar exploration. Through international collaboration and technological innovation, NASA and ESA aim to develop a timekeeping system that can meet the unique demands of lunar missions. This initiative underscores the importance of precision timekeeping in space exploration and sets the stage for future advancements that will extend humanity's reach further into the solar system.

Starship's Significance

The Starship system, comprising the Super Heavy booster and the Starship spacecraft, is designed to be fully reusable and is vital to SpaceX CEO Elon Musk's vision for interplanetary travel. This vehicle stands 394 feet tall and can generate 16.7 million pounds of thrust, nearly twice that of NASA's Space Launch System (SLS).

The goal of the Starship program is to significantly reduce the cost of space travel by enabling the spacecraft to be reused multiple times, similar to commercial airplanes. This reusability is expected to make space exploration more accessible and pave the way for missions to the Moon, Mars, and beyond.

Previous Test Flights

This upcoming flight follows three previous test attempts, each ending in the vehicle's destruction but providing valuable data. These tests are part of SpaceX's iterative development process, where rapid prototyping and real-world testing are used to refine designs.

The previous tests saw the Starship fly high into the atmosphere before encountering issues during descent and landing phases. Despite the dramatic endings, each test has yielded important information that engineers use to make adjustments and improvements to the Starship design.

This approach of learning through successive iterations is central to SpaceX's strategy and has been a key factor in the company's numerous breakthroughs in space technology.

Objectives of the Fourth Flight

For the fourth flight, SpaceX aims to achieve a successful launch and demonstrate key aspects of the vehicle's reusability. The test will include a planned soft splashdown for the Super Heavy booster in the Gulf of Mexico and a controlled entry for the Starship upper stage, aiming to achieve a significant milestone in the vehicle's development.

This test is not just about reaching space; it is about demonstrating that the components can be recovered and reused efficiently. Achieving this will mark a significant step toward operational missions, where the ability to reuse spacecraft will drastically reduce costs and increase the frequency of launches.

Technical Challenges

One of the primary challenges is managing the immense power and complexity of the rocket's engines and its flight systems. The previous flights have shown that the Starship system can reach significant altitudes and velocities, but the final phases of descent and landing have posed difficulties.

Addressing these challenges is critical for achieving a fully reusable system, which is central to SpaceX's strategy for reducing the cost of space travel. The engineers are focused on fine-tuning the landing algorithms, improving the robustness of the heat shield, and ensuring the reliability of the propulsion systems during the critical phases of flight. Overcoming these technical hurdles is essential for the future success of the Starship program.

NASA and SpaceX Collaboration

The success of Starship is not only crucial for SpaceX but also for NASA's Artemis program, which aims to return humans to the Moon by 2026. NASA has selected a modified version of Starship as the lunar lander for these missions, underscoring the importance of SpaceX achieving its reusability and operational goals.

This collaboration between NASA and SpaceX highlights the growing reliance on private companies to provide critical technologies and capabilities for national space exploration goals. A successful test flight on June 5 would not only validate SpaceX's technology but also strengthen its role as a key partner in NASA's efforts to explore deeper into space.

Future Prospects

The outcomes of the June 5 test will significantly impact SpaceX's timelines and plans for future missions. A successful test would mark a major step forward in making Starship operational and would bolster confidence in SpaceX's ambitious plans for Mars colonization and other deep space missions.

This test flight is also a crucial milestone for upcoming missions, including potential commercial missions and scientific explorations. The ability to launch, recover, and reuse Starship efficiently will revolutionize how we approach space travel, making it more sustainable and affordable. SpaceX's vision of a multi-planetary future hinges on the success of this reusable rocket technology.

This long-theorized interplanetary collision, which scientists say occurred some 4.5 billion years ago, saw a Mars-sized planet named 'Theia' sever itself into scorching lava shards upon impact with the earth.

Unveiling Theia's Legacy: Evidence Reveals Moon's Origins as Remnants of a Lost Planet

While some of Theia's planetary remains appear to be buried as thick and gigantic 'blobs' deep beneath Africa and the Pacific Ocean's tectonic plates, scientists have yet to find evidence of where the remainder of Theia went following the collision.

However, fresh data from NASA's Gravity Recovery and Interior Laboratory (GRAIL) satellite have discovered enormous quantities of titanium-iron ore deep beneath the moon's surface, indicating that Theia's other remains did, in fact, become Earth's moon.

Adrien Broquet, planetary geophysicist at the German Aerospace Center in Berlin, referred to NASA's GRAIL findings as nothing short of 'mesmerizing.'

His team's new paper, published this April in Nature Geoscience, was centred on 'gravity anomalies' deep under the surface of the moon: dense, heavy pockets of matter identified by the GRAIL spacecraft's sensors.

'Analyzing these variations in the moon's gravity field allowed us to peek under the moon's surface and see what lies beneath,' Broquet stated.

The GRAIL spacecraft discovered two dense zones beneath the moon's crust, in the region known as the mantle, that correspond to the titanium and iron 'ilmenite' deposits that would occur if the Theia impact scenario were right.

Following Theia's anticipated crash with Earth, and after remnants of this lost planet were buried deep beneath the Earth's crust, molten lava pools containing heavy titanium and iron on the moon's surface started sinking deeper into its core, pushing lighter rock up.

'Our moon literally turned itself inside out,' declared Broquet's co-author, Jeff Andrews-Hanna, a geophysicist at the University of Arizona's Lunar and Planetary Laboratory.

Computer models created by their colleague Nan Zhang at Peking University in Beijing provided the initial basis for their theory that titanium-rich material would exist deep within the moon as a result of the moon's formation as fragments of planet Theia.

'When we saw those model predictions,' Andrews-Hanna said, 'it was like a lightbulb went on.'

'We see the exact same pattern when we look at subtle variations in the moon's gravity field,' he said,'revealing a network of dense material lurking below the crust.'

New Findings Illuminate Earth's Ancient History and Moon's Formation

Back on Earth, two comparable dense and peculiar regions near the base of our planet's mantle, known as Large Low Velocity Provinces (LLVPs), have supported the notion that our moon was formed by an interplanetary 'Theia' collision.

One LLVP is located underneath the African tectonic plate and the other beneath the Pacific tectonic plate, according to seismic instruments used to detect earthquakes.

Their presence was confirmed when geologists discovered that seismic waves slowed substantially at a depth of 1,800 miles (2,900 km) in the two zones, which varied from other parts of the Earth.

Scientists believe the material in these LLVPs is 2–3.5 percent denser than the Earth's surrounding core.

Last year, researchers from the California Institute of Technology proposed that these LLVPs originated from a small amount of Theian material that infiltrated the old Earth's lower mantle.

To back this up, they recruited Professor Hongping Deng of the Shanghai Astronomical Observatory to investigate the notion using his pioneering computational fluid dynamics methods.

After completing a series of simulations, Professor Deng discovered that following the moon-forming collision, a large amount of 'Theian' material — approximately 2% of Earth's mass—would have penetrated the ancient planet's lower mantle.

'Through precise analysis of a wider range of rock samples, combined with more refined giant impact models and Earth evolution models, we can infer the material composition and orbital dynamics of the primordial Earth, “Gaia,” and “Theia,”' stated Deng's co-author Qian Yuan, a CalTech geophysicist who also worked on this project.

Deng and Yuan's team published their study in the journal Nature late in 2023.

Broquet hopes that future NASA moon missions, such as the Artemis programme, can collect first-of-its-kind seismic data to support the Theia collision scenario.

'Future missions, such as with a seismic network, would allow a better investigation of the geometry of these structures,' the researcher said.

Today’s stories include the Great Filter means we could die out before we discover alien life to White dwarf study suggests planets are as old as their stars to Early meteorites brought enough water to Mars to create a global ocean, and much more.

Why This Universe? A New Calculation Suggests Our Cosmos Is Typical, reports Charlie Wood for Quanta.com–Two physicists have calculated that the universe has a higher entropy — and is therefore more likely — than alternative possible universes.

Roger Penrose: “Consciousness must be beyond computable physics”–The mathematician shares his latest theories on quantum consciousness, the structure of the universe and how to communicate with civilizations from other cosmological aeons, reports New Scientist.

Will Galaxies and Intelligences They Host Beyond the Observable Universe Evolve Like Our Own? asks The Daily Galaxy. “The volume of space-time within range of our telescopes—what astronomers have traditionally called ‘the universe’—is only a tiny fraction of the aftermath of the big bang,” says astrophysicist Martin Rees. “We’d expect far more galaxies located beyond the horizon, unobservable, each of which –along with any intelligences it hosts– will evolve rather like our own.”

NASA’s Webb Draws Back Curtain on Universe’s Early Galaxies, reports NASA. “Everything we see is new. Webb is showing us that there’s a very rich universe beyond what we imagined,” said Tommaso Treu of the University of California at Los Angeles, principal investigator on one of the Webb programs. “Once again the universe has surprised us. These early galaxies are very unusual in many ways.”

No, there isn’t a hole in the Universe–The image you’re seeing isn’t a hole in the Universe, and the cosmic voids that do exist aren’t hole-like at all, reports Big Think. “The picture that normally accompanies it is wildly misleading, showing a dark cloud of gas and dust just a few hundred light-years away, not a large-scale cosmic structure. But the claim itself isn’t true; even in the deepest depths of the largest cosmic voids, lots of matter still remains, and so do stars, galaxies, and numerous electromagnetic signatures.”

Dark matter may be information itself, reports Melvin Vopson is Senior Lecturer in the School of Mathematics and Physics at the University of Portsmouth for iAiTV. “Some have proposed that “information” is the 5th state of matter along solid, liquid, gas and plasma and possibly the dominant form of matter in the universe.”

Giant satellite outshines stars, sparking fresh concerns for astronomers–Transmissions from BlueWalker 3 also pose threat to radio observatories, reports Science.com. “It’s like exactly what astronomers don’t want,” says astronomer Meredith Rawls of the University of Washington, Seattle, who helps run the International Astronomical Union’s Centre for the Protection of the Dark and Quiet Sky from Satellite Constellation Interference. “It’ll show up as a superbright streak in images and potentially saturate camera detectors at observatories.”

The hunt for habitable ocean worlds beyond our solar system–Astronomers think that planets covered in water, with oceans hundreds of meters deep, could be relatively common in our galaxy. Now the race is on to find one, reports New Scientist.

Early meteorites brought enough water to Mars to create a global ocean–“Meteorites bombarding the Red Planet may have carried so much water that it could have covered the planet in a layer 300 metros deep if spread out, while also depositing molecules essential for life, reports New Scientist.

How to tell the difference between a regular black hole and a wormhole–Physicists have worked out how to see whether a black hole is actually a wormhole that could theoretically be travelled through – but we can’t tell yet with the black holes we have observed, reports New Scientist.

Sun-like star found orbiting closest black hole to Earth, reports Astronomy.com–“Located just under 1,600 light-years away, the discovery suggests there might be a sizable population of dormant black holes in binary systems.”

White dwarf study suggests planets are as old as their stars.–“Astronomers have long known how planets form, but the when of it has always been unclear. If a Cambridge University team’s conclusion from a study of white dwarf stars proves correct, that question has been answered,” reports The Register.

A Better Way To Search for Extraterrestrial Life–An airborne chemical sends a distinctive biological signal, reports SciTechDaily, “Broccoli, along with many other plants and microorganisms, release gases to aid in the removal of toxins. These gases, according to scientists, might provide strong evidence that there is life on other planets.”

What’s the real reason you can’t go faster than the speed of light? asks Big Think. “Space and time are unified into a single entity known as spacetime. And every object travels through spacetime at the speed of light. Even a stationary object is moving at the speed of light, but it is moving only through time and not space.”

Invisible Numbers Are the Most Beautiful Part of Every ‘Space’ Image–We are drawn to breathtaking images of the heavens, but there is beauty in the numbers those images hold, reports Fabio Pacucci for Scientific American.

Highlights From NASA’s Artemis Moon Rocket Launch--The uncrewed mission overcame scrubbed launches, hurricanes and late launchpad drama to kick off a key test of America’s ability to send astronauts back to the moon, reports The New York Times.

Great Filter means we could die out before we discover alien life, reports The Times of London. “Threats such as nuclear war, climate change and pandemics could finish off humanity before we have a chance to discover other intelligent life, continuing a cycle that scientists say may account for why extraterrestrials have not been found despite decades spent looking.”

Would Global Conflict Follow Alien Contact? asks Supercluster.com –“Anthropologist John Traphagan and geothermal physicist and former United States Air Force Major General, Ken Wisian, published a paper in the journal Space Policy, suggesting that SETI, the Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence, could be dangerous. However, the threat wouldn’t come from invading aliens, but from ourselves and our messy geopolitics.” 

Meteorite that landed in Cotswolds may solve mystery of Earth’s water–“a 4.6bn-year-old rock that crashed on to a driveway in Gloucestershire last year has provided some of the most compelling evidence to date that water arrived on Earth from asteroids in the outer solar system,” reports The Guardian.

Curated by The Daily Galaxy Editorial Staff

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This weekend’s stories include: Iconic James Webb Images Show an Alien World in Unprecedented Detail to Is Dark Energy a Uniform Force Across Space and Time?, and much more.

Frank Drake Pioneering Radio Astronomer in Search for Alien Life Dies at 92, reports UC Santa Cruz. “Drake is widely known for, among other things, the ‘Drake Equation, which he devised in 1961 to estimate the number of communicative extraterrestrial civilizations that might be detectable in our galaxy. Drake was head of telescope operations at the National Radio Astronomy Observatory (NRAO) where he had conducted the first organized search for radio signals from intelligent extraterrestrial sources in 1960 (Project Ozma).

Why do galaxies stop making stars? A huge collision in space provides new clues, reports the University of Pittsburgh. “One of the biggest questions in astronomy is why the biggest galaxies are dead,” said David Setton, a sixth-year physics and astronomy Ph.D. student. “What we saw is that if you take two galaxies and smash them together, that can actually rip gas out of the galaxy itself.”

An Astronomer Is Privately Funding a Search for Alien Technology on the Ocean Floor, reports Extreme Tech. “The astronomical community has treated Harvard astrophysicist, Avi Loeb, suggestions with skepticism, as you would expect from those in a profession that thrives on evidence. The confirmation that CNEOS 2014-01-08 came from another solar system has given Loeb something new on which to focus.”

Future microbatteries could help tiny robots tackle space and time, reports Interesting Engineering. “Advancing smart dust concepts is inhibited by a lack of equally small on-chip power sources that can function anytime and anywhere. Could this microbattery the size of a grain of salt be the solution?”

‘Bouncing’ universe theory still can’t explain what came first, reports Space.com. “New research shows that a new model of a universe with endless periods of expansion and collapse still needs a beginning.”

Is Dark Energy a Uniform Force Across Space and Time? asks The Daily Galaxy. “Astronomers may soon have the answer to what is perhaps the greatest mystery of modern science –is dark energy a uniform force across space and time, or has its strength evolved over eons?”

Aliens may already be here, but how would we know? asks Science journalist and astrophysicist, Graham Phillips. “Can we really use science and logic to determine if aliens are here? Given ET and its tech will almost certainly be well beyond our comprehension, our misguided arguments are probably doomed to failure.”

“Cosmic collision”: A stunning photo of the galactic merging of two galaxies is a preview of what scientists say is to come for the Milky Way. “This image from the Gemini North telescope in Hawai’i reveals a pair of interacting spiral galaxies — NGC 4568 (bottom) and NGC 4567 (top) — as they begin to clash and merge. The galaxies will eventually form a single elliptical galaxy in around 500 million years.”

‘Historic’ James Webb images show an alien world in unprecedented detail. Telescope uses infrared light to reveal blazing gas giant shrouded in dusty red clouds, reports The Guardian.

YouTube: An astrophysicist on the fact that “black holes” are neither black nor holes

JPL tries to keep Voyager space probes from disconnecting the world’s longest phone call, reports Yahoo News.”It’s been 45 years since NASA’s Voyager spacecraft blasted off from Earth, but the twin explorers still call home from billions of miles away. ‘We do the ‘Hello, are you OK?’ call once a week,’ said Suzanne Dodd, project manager for the long-running mission at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory in La Cañada Flintridge.

Why China is fuming over NASA’s Artemis program, reports The Hill. “An article in the Global Times, China’s English language mouthpiece, accused the United States of fomenting a new space race. “China’s crewed moon landing is more in line with scientific principles, but NASA might grow more hostile against China in the space domain given the huge pressure it is facing to maintain its global leadership in moon exploration.”

‘Not progress’: NASA’s giant SLS rocket is expensive and late, ex-Deputy Administrator says. “Even I could not have imagined how late and how over budget it would be,” reports Interesting Engineering.

Has an Artificial-Intelligence Revolution Happened at Other Points in the Universe, asks The Daily Galaxy. “Ultimately, we may launch our AI systems for interstellar travel towards distant destinations, such as habitable planets around other stars, where they could reproduce themselves with the help of accompanying 3D printers.”

Curated by The Daily Galaxy Editorial Staff

The Galaxy Report newsletter brings you twice-weekly news of space and science that has the capacity to provide clues to the mystery of our existence and add a much needed cosmic perspective in our current Anthropocene Epoch.

Yes, sign me up for my free subscription.

Recent Galaxy Reports:

Unmistakable Signal of Alien Life to What Happens if China Makes First Contact?

Clues to Alien Life to A Galaxy 100 x Size of Milky Way 

Cracks in Einstein’s Theory of Gravity to Colossal Shock Wave Bigger than the Milky Way 

Monster Comet Arriving from the Oort Cloud to Black Hole Apocalypse 

Enigmas of Stephen Hawking’s Blackboard to Why the Universe and Life Exist 

Einstein’s Critics to NASA Theologians Prepare for Alien Contact

Mind-Bending New Multiverse Theory to Dark-Matter Asteroids of the Milky Way 

Mysterious Expanding Regions of Dark Matter to Are Black Holes Holograms

Read about The Daily Galaxy editorial team here

Today’s stories include New Exoplanet Water World Detected to The Strange Case of Eyeball Planets to Is Dark Matter Self-Interacting, and much more.

Maybe the Universe Thinks. Hear Me Out, reports Sabine Hossenfelder for Time. “The resemblance between the human brain and the universe is not entirely superficial; it has been rigorously analyzed in a 2020 study by the Italian astrophysicist Franco Vazza and neuroscientist Alberto Feletti. They calculated how many structures of different sizes are in the human brain’s connectome and in the cosmic web, and reported ‘a remarkable similarity’.”

NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope has captured the first clear evidence for carbon dioxide in the atmosphere of a planet outside the solar system. “This observation of a gas giant planet orbiting a Sun-like star 700 light-years away provides important insights into the composition and formation of the planet. The finding, which is accepted for publication in Nature, offers evidence that in the future Webb may be able to detect and measure carbon dioxide in the thinner atmospheres of smaller, rocky planets,” reports NASA.

Exoplanet Water World Detected, An international team of researchers led by Charles Cadieux, a Ph.D. student at the Université de Montréal and member of the Institute for Research on Exoplanets (iREx), has announced the discovery of TOI-1452 b, an exoplanet orbiting one of two small stars in a binary system located in the Draco constellation about 100 light-years from Earth.

‘There’s no blank sky any more’–The telescope revealing the secrets of the universe— After the James Webb space telescope sends extraordinary images of Jupiter, astrophysicist Dr Becky Smethurst explains why it’s so important for The Guardian.

The strange case of eyeball planets. These tidally locked worlds could be the key to finding life in the universe — if they exist, reports Astronomy.

Caltech Scientists Launch What Could Be Humanity’s Best Chance for Finding Signs of Extraterrestrial Life, reports Robert Perkins at CalTech. “As NASA’s Mars Perseverance rover explores Jezero Crater on the red planet, scientists back at at Caltech are eagerly launching into what is quite possibly humanity’s best chance for finding ancient signs of extraterrestrial life to date. 

Dark matter could finally reveal itself through self-interactions, reports Paul Sutter for space.com—“One hypothesis for the nature of dark matter is that some of it could be self-interacting, meaning the individual particles interact slightly with one another.”

NASA Recorded The Sound From A Black Hole, And It’s Super Eerie, reports Michelle Starr for ScienceAlert.

How the Webb Telescope Expanded My Universe, reports Dennis Overbye for the New York Times. :As new images of Jupiter and a galactic survey spring forth from NASA’s new observatory, our cosmic affairs correspondent confesses he didn’t anticipate their power. This has been the summer of Webb. Hardly a week has gone by without the news media being graced by another spectacular image or tentative but striking measurement of the infrared universe.”

Webb  shows Jupiter’s auroras, tiny moons–-“We’ve never seen Jupiter like this. It’s all quite incredible,” said planetary astronomer Imke de Pater, of the University of California, Berkeley, who helped lead the observations.

Mesmerizing new James Webb telescope photo shows a strange spiral galaxy, reports BGR.com–“The Great Barred Spiral Galaxy is more formally known as NGC 1365. It is located around 56 million light years away from Earth. The galaxy is a star-forming galaxy with an actively feeding supermassive black hole—one akin to our own Milky Way black hole. The galaxy is also “face-on” towards Earth, which gives astronomers a perfect view of its double-barred structure.”

Caltech Scientists Launch What Could Be Humanity’s Best Chance for Finding Signs of Extraterrestrial Life, reports Robert Perkins at CalTech. “As NASA’s Mars Perseverance rover explores Jezero Crater on the red planet, scientists back at at Caltech are eagerly launching into what is quite possibly humanity’s best chance for finding ancient signs of extraterrestrial life to date.”

What Drives Galaxies? The Milky Way’s Black Hole May Be the Key, reports Thomas Lewton for Quanta. Supermassive black holes have come to the fore as engines of galactic evolution, but new observations of the Milky Way and its central hole don’t yet hang together. “Somehow only a thousandth of the matter that’s flowing into the Milky Way from the surrounding intergalactic medium makes it all the way down and into the hole.”

All systems go for Artemis 1 mission to Moon--“Fifty years after the last Apollo mission, the Artemis program is poised to take up the baton of lunar exploration with a test launch on Monday of NASA’s most powerful rocket ever. The goal is to return humans to the Moon for the first time since the last Apollo mission in 1972—and eventually to Mars,” reports Lucie Aubourg for Phys.org.

The Latest Webb Observations Don’t Disprove The Big Bang, But They Are Interesting, reports Universe Today. ” Recent observations by the James Webb Space Telescope have not disproven the big bang, despite certain popular articles claiming otherwise. That said, the latest Webb observations do reveal some strange and unexpected things about the universe, and if you’d like to know more, keep reading.”

Hubble revolutionized astrophysics. James Webb is just getting started reports Big Think. “JWST is only getting started, and astronomers can expect an explosion of new data over the next several years.”

Scientists have traced Earth’s path through the galaxy via tiny crystals found in its crust reports Chris Kirkland and Phil Sutton for The Conversation.

The SLS rocket is the worst thing to happen to NASA—but maybe also the best? reports Ars Technica. “This has been a really tough thing.”

Curated by The Daily Galaxy Editorial Staff

The Galaxy Report newsletter brings you twice-weekly news of space and science that has the capacity to provide clues to the mystery of our existence and add a much needed cosmic perspective in our current Anthropocene Epoch.

Yes, sign me up for my free subscription.

Recent Galaxy Reports:

Unmistakable Signal of Alien Life to What Happens if China Makes First Contact?

Clues to Alien Life to A Galaxy 100 x Size of Milky Way 

Cracks in Einstein’s Theory of Gravity to Colossal Shock Wave Bigger than the Milky Way 

Monster Comet Arriving from the Oort Cloud to Black Hole Apocalypse 

Enigmas of Stephen Hawking’s Blackboard to Why the Universe and Life Exist 

Einstein’s Critics to NASA Theologians Prepare for Alien Contact

Mind-Bending New Multiverse Theory to Dark-Matter Asteroids of the Milky Way 

Mysterious Expanding Regions of Dark Matter to Are Black Holes Holograms

Read about The Daily Galaxy editorial team here

Today’s stories include The true story behind Carl Sagan’s cult classic, Contact to Is the Multiverse religion by another name to Will China be the first nation to discover extraterrestrial life, and much more.

Could primordial black holes from the beginning of time explain ‘dark matter’ the mysterious missing mass in the Universe? asks Aeon. “Evidence has grown over the past century that there must be something out there besides the stuff that makes up our tables, our planet, even ourselves. An early hint, in the 1970s, came from the astronomer Vera Rubin, who showed that stars at the edges of galaxies rotate faster than we’d expect from just the mass we can see through telescopes.

Could Dark Matter Be a Source of Light In the Universe? asks The Daily Galaxy. “A discovery in 2014 suggested that the source of light in the universe from known populations of galaxies and quasars is not nearly enough to explain observations of intergalactic hydrogen. The filaments of hydrogen and helium that bridge the vast reaches of empty space between galaxies that astronomers use as a “light meter” yielded a stunning 400 percent discrepancy.”

NASA’s Lucy Team Discovers Moon Around Asteroid Polymele, reports NASA. “Even before its launch, NASA’s Lucy mission was already on track to break records by visiting more asteroids than any previous mission. Now, after a surprise result from a long-running observation campaign, the mission can add one more asteroid to the list.”

Roman Space Telescope top challenge for new NASA astrophysics director, reports Space News. “NASA is starting efforts to plan for the next flagship mission after Roman, currently envisioned as a large infrared, optical and ultraviolet space telescope designated IROUV. A new effort, the Great Observatories Mission and Technology Maturation Program or GOMAP, is getting underway to define science goals and advance key technologies need for the mission.”

Violent ripples reverberating across spacetime might finally reveal how quickly our universe is expanding, reports CNet.–“In 2019, a conference held at the Kavli Institute for Theoretical Physics in California concluded with a fraught statement: “We wouldn’t call it a tension or a problem but rather a crisis.”

Most planets in the Universe are orphans without parent stars. Known as orphaned planets, rogue planets, or planets without parent stars, these “outliers” might be the most common planet of all, reports Big Think. “Many of the early-stage planets that form around stars will get ejected, destined to roam the Universe forever as rogue, or orphaned, planets. These rogue planets could be thousands of times as numerous as stars.”

“Eye of Heaven” –Thoughts of China’s Astronomers on Advanced Extraterrestrial Life reports The Daily Galaxy. “With China poised to lead the world in AI and supercomputers, astronomers  are wondering if it will also be the first advanced nation to discover extraterrestrial life? Perhaps the world’s largest single-dish radio observatory, China’s new FAST Radio Telescope –Tiyan, the “Eye of Heaven”– will provide an answer as it prepares to explore a frontier in radio astronomy — using radio waves to locate exoplanets, which may harbor extraterrestrial life.”

The true story behind Carl Sagan’s cult classic, Contact –Do aliens dream about meeting us, too? asks Big Think.

Scientists blast atoms with Fibonacci laser to make an ‘extra’ dimension of time reports Ben Turner for Live Science. “By firing a Fibonacci laser pulse at atoms inside a quantum computer, physicists have created a completely new, strange phase of matter that behaves as if it had two dimensions of time.”

What Is the Black Hole Information Paradox? A Primer, reports Scientific American. 

NASA’s Big Rocket Reaches Launchpad. Next Stop: The Moon--The Space Launch System and Orion capsule will launch on Aug. 29 to formally start the Artemis moon exploration program, reports New York Times Science.

Notorious dark-matter signal could be due to analysis error–Observations that physicists have so far failed to replicate could be the result of misinterpreted data, reports Davide Castelvecchi for Nature. “Physicists have shown that an underground experiment in South Korea can ‘see’ dark matter streaming through Earth — or not, depending on how its data are sliced. The results cast further doubt on a decades-old claim that another experiment has been detecting the mysterious substance.”

Look at What Happens When Two Galaxies Collide–The stars sail past one another, and the night sky would probably be fabulous, reports Marina Koren for The Atlantic. ““The sky would be filled with newly formed stars, and we would be able to see warped streams of stars, gas, and dust stretching across the sky.” The view would be especially stunning if you lived along the outer edges of the galaxy, where the night sky would be less crowded with stars than at the busy galactic center.”

The Multiverse is religion by another name –The false assumption the Multiverse relies on is that something which exists requires an explanation, reports Big Think. “The Multiverse has been proposed as an answer to the question, “Why does our Universe exist?” Its proponents believe the Multiverse can explain our origins without having to reference God. But the Multiverse is in no way falsifiable, and the arguments in its support are nearly identical to the arguments for God. Not all questions need to be answered in order to be meaningful.”

Curated by The Daily Galaxy Editorial Staff

The Galaxy Report newsletter brings you twice-weekly news of space and science that has the capacity to provide clues to the mystery of our existence and add a much needed cosmic perspective in our current Anthropocene Epoch.

Yes, sign me up for my free subscription.

Recent Galaxy Reports:

Unmistakable Signal of Alien Life to What Happens if China Makes First Contact?

Clues to Alien Life to A Galaxy 100 x Size of Milky Way 

Cracks in Einstein’s Theory of Gravity to Colossal Shock Wave Bigger than the Milky Way 

Monster Comet Arriving from the Oort Cloud to Black Hole Apocalypse 

Enigmas of Stephen Hawking’s Blackboard to Why the Universe and Life Exist 

Einstein’s Critics to NASA Theologians Prepare for Alien Contact

Mind-Bending New Multiverse Theory to Dark-Matter Asteroids of the Milky Way 

Mysterious Expanding Regions of Dark Matter to Are Black Holes Holograms

Read about The Daily Galaxy editorial team here

Today’s stories range from Humans Are Making It Harder to Listen for Possible Aliens to Hubble Telescope Spots Stunning Hidden Galaxy Behind Milky Way to Bottomless Black Hole Exit Ramps Out of the Universe, and much more.

Humans Are Making It Harder to Listen for Possible Aliens –Increasing demands for mobile services and wireless internet have crowded the radio spectrum, creating interference that can skew data and add “noise” to scientific results, reports 4NBC Washington.

NASA’s Massive New Spacecraft Built to Hunt for Extraterrestrial Life, reports cNET–“It’s the largest NASA spacecraft ever developed for a planetary mission, and in October 2024, it’s scheduled to voyage toward an extraterrestrial world many scientists deeply believe could host alien life. It’s named the Clipper, and it’s bound for Jupiter’s icy moon Europa.”

Australian researchers discover the fastest-growing black hole of the last 9 billion years–Visible to a backyard astronomer, and yet only just discovered, reports Cosmos.com

Hubble telescope spots stunning ‘Hidden Galaxy’ hiding behind our own Milky Way, reports Elizabeth Howell for Space,com. “If it weren’t for all the interstellar matter in the way, IC 342 would be one of the brightest galaxies in the sky.”

James Bardeen, an Expert on Unraveling Einstein’s Equations, Dies at 83 –A scion of a renowned family of physicist, he helped set the stage for the golden age of black hole astrophysics, reports Dennis Overbye for the New York Times. “That theory ascribes what we call gravity to the bending of spacetime by matter and energy. Its most mysterious and disturbing consequence was the possibility of black holes, places so dense that they became bottomless one-way exit ramps out of the universe, swallowing even light and time.”l

Is the Universe rotating? Ethan Siegel answers for Big Think. At all distances, the Universe expands along our line-of-sight. But we can’t measure side-to-side motions; could it be rotating as well?

NASA Scientists are soon going to publish an image of the universe that has never been seen before, displaying some of the universe’s oldest stars and galaxies, reports Mint.com. “On July 12  NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center in Maryland will host a live broadcast of the photos and scientific data. Live coverage is available to the public via NASA TV and website.”

The stunning perspectives show four of our galactic neighbors in a different light, reports NASA/JPL. New images using data from ESA (European Space Agency) and NASA missions showcase the dust that fills the space between stars in four of the galaxies closest to our own Milky Way. More than striking, the snapshots are also a scientific trove, lending insight into how dramatically the density of dust clouds can vary within a galaxy.

Webb Telescope Will Look for Signs of Life Way Out There--The first question astronomers want to answer about exoplanets: Do they have atmospheres friendly to life? reports Carl Zimmer for The New York Times. “Identifying an atmosphere in another solar system would be remarkable enough. But there is even a chance — albeit tiny — that one of these atmospheres will offer what is known as a biosignature: a signal of life itself.”

Update – NASA’s CAPSTONE spacecraft is on its way to the moon. As part of its Artemis program to return humans to the moon, NASA’s CAPSTONE spacecraft to map the orbit of the planned Lunar Gateway space station has taken off from New Zealand, reports New Scientist.

The great Big Bang misconception. Thanks to time-traveling telescopes, we can see more about the Big Bang, reports Michelle Thaller in this stunning Big Think Video:

“Information Can Escape a Black Hole Both On the Outside and Possibly to Another Universe” (Stephen Hawking’s Paradox), reports The Daily Galaxy. “It has been said that Newton gave us answers; Stephen Hawking gave us questions. A trio of physicists appear one step closer to resolving the black-hole information paradox, one of the most intriguing physics mysteries of our time.”

Alien life: What would constitute “smoking gun” evidence? –Multiple lines of evidence — physical, chemical, and biological — must converge for scientists to conclude that alien life has been found, reports Big Think.

Laser scans reveal ancient cities hidden in the Amazon river basin–reports Big Think. The architecture and infrastructure found may well have required the greatest amount of skilled labor of any construction from the same time period in the entire continent. 

NASA’s LEMUR 3 –A robot designed to crawl, walk, or climb in extreme terrains.

Curated by The Daily Galaxy Editorial Staff

The Galaxy Report newsletter brings you twice-weekly news of space and science that has the capacity to provide clues to the mystery of our existence and add a much needed cosmic perspective in our current Anthropocene Epoch.

Yes, sign me up for my free subscription.

Recent Galaxy Reports:

Unmistakable Signal of Alien Life to What Happens if China Makes First Contact?

Clues to Alien Life to A Galaxy 100 x Size of Milky Way 

Cracks in Einstein’s Theory of Gravity to Colossal Shock Wave Bigger than the Milky Way 

Monster Comet Arriving from the Oort Cloud to Black Hole Apocalypse 

Enigmas of Stephen Hawking’s Blackboard to Why the Universe and Life Exist 

Einstein’s Critics to NASA Theologians Prepare for Alien Contact

Mind-Bending New Multiverse Theory to Dark-Matter Asteroids of the Milky Way 

Mysterious Expanding Regions of Dark Matter to Are Black Holes Holograms

Read about The Daily Galaxy editorial team here

Today’s stories range from Robotic cubes shapeshift in outer space to Inside Einstein’s mind to Researchers believe there may be a planet that could sustain life, in the vicinity of a dying sun, and much more. “The Galaxy Report” brings you news of space and science that has the capacity to provide clues to the mystery of our existence and adds a much needed cosmic perspective in our current Anthropocene Epoch.

Astronomers Find Two Giant Black Holes Spiraling Toward a Collision, reports NASA/JPL –“A supermassive black hole 9 billion light-years away appears to have a companion black hole orbiting around it. As the orbit shrinks, the pair gets closer to merging. The enormous duo – called a binary – circle one another about every two years.”

Robotic cubes shapeshift in outer space –Self-reconfiguring ElectroVoxels use embedded electromagnets to test applications for space exploration, reports MIT. “If faced with the choice of sending a swarm of full-sized, distinct robots to space, or a large crew of smaller robotic modules, you might want to enlist the latter. Modular robots, like those depicted in films such as “Big Hero 6,” hold a special type of promise for their self-assembling and reconfiguring abilities.”

Surveying the Universe with Rubin Observatory, reports AAS Nova. “Rubin Observatory and LSST are poised to revolutionize astronomy in ways both anticipated and unexpected; through repeated observations, LSST will enable us to detect and monitor transient events like supernovae and gamma-ray bursts, map the Milky Way, probe the nature of dark energy and dark matter, and expand our catalogs of solar system objects by more than an order of magnitude.”

Our universe may have a twin that runs backward in time, reports Paul Sutter for Space.com –An anti-universe running backwards in time could explain dark matter and cosmic inflation.

Parts of the Milky Way are much older than thought, study reveals–“The Milky Way’s thick disk is 2 billion years older than astronomers previously thought and likely formed barely 800 million years after the Big Bang, a new study based on an unusual type of star found, reports Space.com

New NASA Launches –-At Launch Pad 39-B sometime between April 1-3, NASA will simulate a countdown — including fueling and de-fueling of the Space Launch System rocket topped with the Orion capsule — as part of a dress rehearsal for Artemis I, a moon launch planned for later this year. The other, Launch Pad 39-A, will send up two SpaceX Crew Dragon capsules. One will contain four “space participants” and a former astronaut who will hitch a ride on a Falcon 9 rocket no earlier than April 3. The other will be a NASA crew leaving no earlier than April 19, reports Yahoo News.

BBC: Life could exist on planet orbiting ‘white dwarf’ star –“Researchers believe there may be a planet that could sustain life, in the vicinity of a dying sun. If confirmed, this would be the first time that a potentially life-supporting planet has been found orbiting such a star, called a “white dwarf”.

What happened before the Big Bang? (VIDEO) A NASA astrophysicist explains. Thanks to time-traveling telescopes, we can see more about the Big Bang, reports Big Think.

The James Webb Space Telescope’s Super Secret 1st Science Targets –“project personnel are staying strictly mum about their first targets, reports Space.com. “We will be seeing back in time, to understand how galaxies like our own Milky Way formed, and then evolved over 13.7 billion years of cosmic time,and also study exoplanets, planets orbiting other stars than our sun, and analyze their atmospheres.”” said Jane Rigby, the James Webb Space Telescope operations project scientist at NASA Goddard Space Flight Center. 

James Webb Space Telescope took Stunning 12 Photos of the Milky Way Galaxy and Universe

Strange waves in the sun are traveling far faster than they should be –Astronomers have found waves made up of eddies of plasma inside the sun, and they can’t explain why they are traveling three times faster than similar waves, reports New Scientist.

NASA’s TESS Tunes into an All-sky ‘Symphony’ of Red Giant Stars –“Using observations from NASA’s Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite (TESS), astronomers have identified an unprecedented collection of pulsating red giant stars all across the sky. These stars, whose rhythms arise from internal sound waves, provide the opening chords of a symphonic exploration of our galactic neighborhood, reports NASA/TESS.

Should Alpha Centauri be our first interstellar target? –The closest star system to Earth, just over 4 light-years away, has three stars and at least one Earth-sized planet. Is it time to go there? asks Ethan Siegel for Forbes. “Of all the stars in the Universe beyond our Sun, the trinary Alpha Centauri star system is the closest at just over 4 light-years away. We know there’s at least one rocky, Earth-sized planet around Proxima Centauri, and if we’re lucky, one of the planets in these systems may be home to life. But does that make Alpha Centauri the best target for an interstellar mission? Maybe not. Here’s why.”

Cosmic Collisions Yield Clues about Exoplanet Formation –Low levels of bombardment reveal that the TRAPPIST-1 system probably grew quickly, reports Scientific American.

Interplanetary Switchboard--NASA Adds Giant New Dish to Communicate With Deep Space Missions. “Called Deep Space Station 53, or DSS-53, the 111-foot (34-meter) antenna is part of NASA’s Deep Space Network (DSN). It’s now operational at the network’s facility outside Madrid, one of three such ground stations around the globe.” 

Women Are Creating a New Culture for Astronomy –A new generation of scientists are challenging the biased, hierarchical status quo, reports Scientific American.

The Evolving Quest for a Grand Unified Theory of Mathematics –-More than 50 years after the seeds of a vast collection of mathematical ideas called the Langlands program began to sprout, surprising new findings are emerging, reports Scientific American.

The Thesan Project: How the universe first evolved, immediately after the Big Bang, reports MIT. Named after a goddess of the dawn, the Thesan simulation of the first billion years helps explain how radiation shaped the early universe.

Documents reveal NASA’s internal struggles over renaming Webb telescope –E-mails show agency’s controversial response to astronomers concerned about past LGBT+ discrimination, reports Nature.com.

Recent Galaxy Reports:

Unmistakable Signal of Alien Life to What Happens if China Makes First Contact?

Clues to Alien Life to A Galaxy 100 x Size of Milky Way 

Cracks in Einstein’s Theory of Gravity to Colossal Shock Wave Bigger than the Milky Way 

Monster Comet Arriving from the Oort Cloud to Black Hole Apocalypse 

Enigmas of Stephen Hawking’s Blackboard to Why the Universe and Life Exist 

Einstein’s Critics to NASA Theologians Prepare for Alien Contact

Mind-Bending New Multiverse Theory to Dark-Matter Asteroids of the Milky Way 

Mysterious Expanding Regions of Dark Matter to Are Black Holes Holograms? 

Mystery of Stephen Hawking’s “Exxon Gravity” to Alien Life in Stellar Graveyards 

Read about The Daily Galaxy editorial team here

Our Moon has yielded some long-held secrets in recent weeks, from possible evidence of ancient life on Venus to NASA’s new discovery of large deposits of water.

Fragments of Ancient Venus Life?

Research by Yale astronomers suggests that our Moon –formed bout 4.51 billion years ago from debris left over after a giant impact between Earth and a Mars-sized body called Theia– may harbor clues that our nearest planetary neighbor, Venus, may have had an Earth-like environment billions of years ago, with water and a thin atmosphere. “Pieces of Venus — perhaps billions of them — are likely to have crashed on the moon,” suggest astronomers Sam Cabot and Greg Laughlin, as asteroids and comets slammed into Venus over the eons dislodging as many as 10 billion rocks and sent them into an orbit that intersected with Earth and Earth’s moon.

Tiny Shadows of Eternal Darkness

A new discovery announced today by NASA revealed that observations by the SOFIA telescope and Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter showed signs of water in the sun-baked lunar soil, as well as in small, dark craters that go beyond past discoveries of significant deposits of water at the large, permanently shadowed craters at its poles. The new discovery that water may be distributed across the lunar surface, and not limited to cold, shadowed places sets the stage for a manned radiation-hardened moon base –where, as our Blue Planet proves, there is water, there can be life.

“If you can imagine standing on the surface of the moon near one of its poles, you would see shadows all over the place,” said Paul Hayne, assistant professor in the Laboratory of Atmospheric and Space Physics at the University of Colorado, Boulder. “Many of those tiny shadows could be full of ice.” Hayne and his colleagues explored phenomena of hidden pockets of water on the moon called “cold traps”–shadowy regions of the surface that exist in a state of eternal darkness.

Not a Single Ray of Sunlight for Billions of Years

Many have gone without a single ray of sunlight for potentially billions of years, reports Hayne. “And these nooks and crannies may be a lot more numerous than previous data suggest. Drawing on detailed data from NASA’s Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter, the researchers estimate that the moon could harbor roughly 15,000 square miles of permanent shadows in various shapes and sizes–reservoirs that, according to theory, might also be capable of preserving water via ice.”

To understand cold traps, suggests Hayne, imagine taking a trip to Shackleton Crater near the moon’s south pole.” This humungous impact crater reaches several miles deep and stretches about 13 miles across. Because of the moon’s position in relation to the sun, much of the crater’s interior is permanently in shadow–a complete lack of direct sunlight that causes temperatures inside to hover at around minus 300 degrees Fahrenheit.

“You look down into Shackleton Crater or Shoemaker Crater, you’re looking into this vast, dark inaccessible region,” Hayne said. “It’s very forbidding.”

That forbidding nature, however, Hayne points out, may also be key to these craters’ importance for planned lunar bases. Scientists have long believed that such cold traps could be ideal environments for hosting ice–a valuable resource that is scarce on the moon but is occasionally delivered in large quantities when water-rich comets or asteroids crash down.

“The temperatures are so low in cold traps that ice would behave like a rock,” Hayne observed. “If water gets in there, it’s not going anywhere for a billion years.”

SOFIA Detects Water Molecules at Clavius Crater

“Prior to the SOFIA observations, we knew there was some kind of hydration. But we didn’t know how much, if any, was actually water molecules – like we drink every day – or something more like drain cleaner,” said Casey Honniball, a NASA Postdoctoral Program fellow at the agency’s Goddard Space Flight Center and a researcher at the University of Hawaii at Manoa, and the lead author of the study, Molecular water detected on the sunlit Moon by SOFIA, published in Nature Astronomy, who used infrared instruments onboard SOFIA to study the sunlit lunar surface.

The observations, which spanned a mere 10 minutes, focused on a region at high southern latitudes near the moon’s large crater, Clavius, and they revealed a strong infrared emission at a wavelength of six microns (µm) from the crater and the surrounding landscape. Warmed by the sun, something on the lunar surface was reemitting the absorbed radiation just as molecular water—plain H2O—would.

“Clues to Alien Life” –Billions of Fragments of Venus May Exist on the Moon

NASA revealed that SOFIA detected water molecules (H2O) in Clavius Crater (shown below along with an image of NASA’s Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy –SOFIA), one of the largest craters visible from Earth, located in the Moon’s southern hemisphere. Previous observations of the Moon’s surface detected some form of hydrogen, but were unable to distinguish between water and its close chemical relative, hydroxyl (OH). Data from this location reveal water in concentrations of 100 to 412 parts per million – roughly equivalent to a 12-ounce bottle of water – trapped in a cubic meter of soil spread across the lunar surface.

H2O on Sunlit Side

“We had indications that H2O – the familiar water we know – might be present on the sunlit side of the Moon,” said Paul Hertz, director of the Astrophysics Division in the Science Mission Directorate at NASA Headquarters in Washington. “Now we know it is there. This discovery challenges our understanding of the lunar surface and raises intriguing questions about resources relevant for deep space exploration.”

As a comparison, the Sahara desert has 100 times the amount of water than what SOFIA detected in the lunar soil. Despite the small amounts, the discovery raises new questions about how water is created and how it persists on the harsh, airless lunar surface.

Under NASA’s Artemis program, the agency is eager to learn all it can about the presence of water on the Moon in advance of sending the first woman and next man to the lunar surface in 2024 and establishing a sustainable human presence there by the end of the decade.

Apollo Missions’ Dry Moon –H2O or OH?

SOFIA’s results build on years of previous research examining the presence of water on the Moon. When the Apollo astronauts first returned from the Moon in 1969, it was thought to be completely dry. Orbital and impactor missions over the past 20 years, such as NASA’s Lunar Crater Observation and Sensing Satellite, confirmed ice in permanently shadowed craters around the Moon’s poles. Meanwhile, several spacecraft – including the Cassini mission and Deep Impact comet mission, as well as the Indian Space Research Organization’s Chandrayaan-1 mission – and NASA’s ground-based Infrared Telescope Facility, looked broadly across the lunar surface and found evidence of hydration in sunnier regions. Yet those missions were unable to definitively distinguish the form in which it was present – either H2O or OH.

Scientists using NASA’s telescope on an airplane, the Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy, discovered water on a sunlit surface of the Moon for the first time. SOFIA is a modified Boeing 747SP aircraft that allows astronomers to study the solar system and beyond in ways that are not possible with ground-based telescopes. Molecular water, H2O, was found in Clavius Crater, one of the largest craters visible from Earth in the Moon’s southern hemisphere. This discovery indicates that water may be distributed across the lunar surface, and not limited to cold, shadowed places.

SOFIA’s Infrared Zooms in on Clavius Crater

SOFIA offered a new means of looking at the Moon. Flying at altitudes of up to 45,000 feet, this modified Boeing 747SP jetliner with a 106-inch diameter telescope reaches above 99% of the water vapor in Earth’s atmosphere to get a clearer view of the infrared universe. Using its Faint Object infraRed CAmera for the SOFIA Telescope (FORCAST), SOFIA was able to pick up the specific wavelength unique to water molecules, at 6.1 microns, and discovered a relatively surprising concentration in sunny Clavius Crater.

“Without a thick atmosphere, water on the sunlit lunar surface should just be lost to space,” said Honniball, who is now a postdoctoral fellow at NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Maryland. “Yet somehow we’re seeing it. Something is generating the water, and something must be trapping it there.”

Several Forces at Play

Several forces could be at play in the delivery or creation of this water. Micrometeorites raining down on the lunar surface, carrying small amounts of water, could deposit the water on the lunar surface upon impact. Another possibility is there could be a two-step process whereby the Sun’s solar wind delivers hydrogen to the lunar surface and causes a chemical reaction with oxygen-bearing minerals in the soil to create hydroxyl. Meanwhile, radiation from the bombardment of micrometeorites could be transforming that hydroxyl into water.

Emergence of Life –“Played an Important Role on Evolution of the Moon”

How the water then gets stored – making it possible to accumulate – also raises some intriguing questions. The water could be trapped into tiny beadlike structures in the soil that form out of the high heat created by micrometeorite impacts. Another possibility is that the water could be hidden between grains of lunar soil and sheltered from the sunlight – potentially making it a bit more accessible than water trapped in beadlike structures.

“Accidental Discovery” –A Test Observation

For a mission designed to look at distant, dim objects such as black holes, star clusters, and galaxies, SOFIA’s spotlight on Earth’s nearest and brightest neighbor was a departure from business as usual. The telescope operators typically use a guide camera to track stars, keeping the telescope locked steadily on its observing target. But the Moon is so close and bright that it fills the guide camera’s entire field of view. With no stars visible, it was unclear if the telescope could reliably track the Moon. To determine this, in August 2018, the operators decided to try a test observation.

“It was, in fact, the first time SOFIA has looked at the Moon, and we weren’t even completely sure if we would get reliable data, but questions about the Moon’s water compelled us to try,” said Naseem Rangwala, SOFIA’s project scientist at NASA’s Ames Research Center in California’s Silicon Valley. “It’s incredible that this discovery came out of what was essentially a test, and now that we know we can do this, we’re planning more flights to do more observations.”

SOFIA’s follow-up flights will look for water in additional sunlit locations and during different lunar phases to learn more about how the water is produced, stored, and moved across the Moon. The data will add to the work of future Moon missions, such as NASA’s Volatiles Investigating Polar Exploration Rover (VIPER), to create the first water resource maps of the Moon for future human space exploration.

In the same issue of Nature Astronomy, scientists have published a paper using theoretical models and NASA’s Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter data, pointing out that water could be trapped in small shadows, where temperatures stay below freezing, across more of the Moon than currently expected. The results can be found here.

“Farside Wakeup” –One of Largest Impacts in Solar System Rang the Moon to ‘Life’

“Water is a valuable resource, for both scientific purposes and for use by our explorers,” said Jacob Bleacher, chief exploration scientist for NASA’s Human Exploration and Operations Mission Directorate. “If we can use the resources at the Moon, then we can carry less water and more equipment to help enable new scientific discoveries.”

Image at top of page: a multi-temporal illumination map of the lunar south pole, Shackleton crater (19 km diameter) is in the center, the south pole is located approximately at 9 o’clock on its rim. The map was created from images from the camera aboard the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter. The South Pole is also a good target for a future human landing because robotically, it’s the most thoroughly investigated region on the Moon. (NASA/GSFC/Arizona State University).

“We know the South Pole region contain water ice and may be rich in other resources based on our observations from orbit, but, otherwise, it’s a completely unexplored world,” said Steven Clarke, deputy associate administrator of the Science Mission Directorate at NASA Headquarters in Washington. “The South Pole is far from the Apollo landing sites clustered around the equator, so it will offer us a new challenge and a new environment to explore as we build our capabilities to travel farther into space.”

The Daily Galaxy, Jake Burba, via University of Colorado, Nature Astronomy and NASA 

Read about The Daily Galaxy editorial team here

Planet Earth Report” provides descriptive links to headline news by leading science journalists about the extraordinary discoveries, technology, people, and events changing our knowledge of Planet Earth and the future of the human species.

Searching for the Atoms of Life –Any extraterrestrial organisms we find will be made of the same atoms we are—yet their existence will be profoundly important to us nonetheless, says Harvard’s Avi Loeb for Scientific American.

What If There Is Life on Venus? –The surprising scientific discovery of phosphine in the clouds of Earth’s closest neighboring planet is reanimating questions about humanity’s place in the cosmos, reports Sapiens.

A Handful of Asteroid Could Help Decipher Our Entire Existence –A NASA mission to a distant space rock could reveal clues about the early solar system, reports The Atlantic.

“Who Knows What Else is Out There” –Glow Shields Earth’s ‘Last Creature’ from Deadly Radiation

Australia Has a Flesh-Eating-Bacteria Problem –-In the beach towns south of Melbourne, everyone, it seems, knows someone who’s been attacked, reports The Atlantic.

The Tree That Could Help Stop the Pandemic –The rare Chilean soapbark tree produces compounds that can boost the body’s reaction to vaccines, reports The Atlantic.

“No Place to Hide” –A ‘Perfect Storm’ 14 Times Earth’s Greatest Biological Catastrophe

How Future AI Could Recognize a Kangaroo Without Ever Having Seen One, reports Singularity Hub.

Alarm as Arctic sea ice not yet freezing at latest date on record –Delayed freeze in Laptev Sea could have knock-on effects across polar region, scientists say, reports The Guardian.

“Ten One-Billionths of Cosmic History” –Past Homo Species Could Not Survive Intense Climate Change

NASA to announce ‘exciting new discovery’ about the moon on Monday, reports Space.com. A NASA statement announcing the news conference promises “an exciting new discovery about the moon” and references the agency’s ambitious Artemis program to land astronauts at the moon’s south pole in 2024. But the science itself comes from a long-running observatory, the Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy (SOFIA), a German-American partnership that made its first flight in 2007.

Colorado’s record-breaking wildfires show “climate change is here and now”, reports CBS News. This year Mother Nature has supplied us with smoking-gun evidence to prove what climate scientists have been warning about for decades. The scorched-earth impacts of climate change have arrived.

Scientists Clocked the Shortest Time Period Ever: 247 ‘Zeptoseconds’, reports Motherboard Science.–Researchers in Germany measured the time it took for a light particle to dislodge two electrons within the same molecule—the fastest event ever recorded.

A Brain-Destroying Prion Disease Is Becoming More Common, Study Finds, reports Gizmodo. The study, published last month in the journal Scientific Reports, looked at data collected by the Japanese government from 2005 to 2014 on residents over the age of 50 who were diagnosed with Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease (CJD). During those years, the study found, the average incidence rate of CJD rose by 6.4 percent annually. This rise was most pronounced among people over the age of 70, but the pattern held even when the researchers accounted for age.

Doctors May Have Found Secretive New Organs in the Center of Your Head –-They appear to be a fourth pair of large salivary glands, tucked into the space where the nasal cavity meets the throat, reports The New York Times,

‘Lost’ Tectonic Plate Hidden Under the Pacific, reports Live Science. –The plate, dubbed Resurrection, has long been controversial among geophysicists, as some believe it never existed. But the new reconstruction puts the edge of the rocky plate along a line of known ancient volcanoes, suggesting that it was once part of the crust (Earth’s top layer) in what is today northern Canada.

Black holes could become massive particle accelerators, reports Live Science. –some physicists are suggesting harnessing the gravitational pull of black holes to create ferocious particle accelerators. The trick, the new study finds, is to carefully set everything up so that particles don’t get lost forever in the insatiable black hole. This new insight may help us identify black holes from the streams of particles blasting away from them.

Can a Moon Base Be Safe for Astronauts? –Creating a sustainable human presence beyond low-Earth orbit requires a clear-eyed view of the risks—and rewards—inherent in spaceflight, reports Scientific American.

Forest Fires Are Setting Chernobyl’s Radiation Free –Trees now cover most of the exclusion zone, and climate change is making them more likely to burn, reports The Atlantic.

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