Scheduled for launch in the early 2030s, this mission is set to explore the possibility that Venus, despite its current harsh conditions, might have once harbored a climate and surface that could have supported liquid water. By delving into the past of this mysterious planet, DAVINCI could redefine our understanding of Venus and why it evolved so differently from Earth.

Unlocking Venus’ Ancient Secrets with New Technologies

The DAVINCI mission (Deep Atmosphere Venus Investigation of Noble Gases, Chemistry, and Imaging) will send a flyby spacecraft and a descent probe to Venus. The mission's primary target is the Alpha Regio, a mountainous region believed to be a possible ancient continent. This area is of particular interest because it could hold the keys to understanding Venus’ geological history and whether it once had water on its surface. The DAVINCI probe will be the first spacecraft in nearly five decades to capture images of Venus’ surface from beneath its thick and opaque clouds.

NASA scientists have applied modern data-analysis techniques to decades-old data from past Venus missions, such as the Magellan mission of the early 1990s. Using advanced tools like artificial intelligence and machine-vision models, the team has enhanced the resolution of Alpha Regio's topography, uncovering new geologic patterns that raise important questions about how these mountains formed. As Jim Garvin, DAVINCI’s principal investigator, explained, this mission is part of a larger effort to piece together “the mosaic that tells the story of Venus.”

Reexamining Old Data for Groundbreaking Discoveries

To prepare for DAVINCI’s arrival at Venus, NASA’s team is reexamining vintage data collected by missions such as Magellan and Pioneer Venus (1978). This data, when analyzed with today’s advanced techniques, has revealed new insights, including recent evidence of volcanic activity on Venus. By comparing this historic information with modern observations, the mission hopes to build a clearer picture of how Venus’ surface and atmosphere have changed over time.

One of DAVINCI’s key innovations is its use of artificial intelligence to sharpen the images captured during the descent, allowing for the creation of detailed 3D topographic maps. These maps will help scientists study Alpha Regio’s surface in unprecedented detail, potentially revealing small features like rocks, rivers, and gullies, which could offer clues about Venus’ past.

Exploring Venus’ Tessera Terrain

Alpha Regio is known for its unique tessera terrain, which consists of rugged, mountain-like formations that resemble geometric patterns on a parquet floor. Tesserae are found only on Venus, and scientists have long debated how these formations came to be. One of the primary goals of the DAVINCI mission is to determine whether the processes that shaped Venus’ tesserae are similar to the geological processes that create mountains and certain types of volcanoes on Earth.

As DAVINCI’s descent probe plunges through Venus’ thick atmosphere, it will begin capturing images once it reaches an altitude of about 25 miles (40 kilometers). Although light scattering in Venus’ atmosphere will blur these images, the mission team is developing methods to overcome this challenge and create sharp visuals. By analyzing the surface texture and rock types, scientists hope to better understand Venus’ geological history and determine whether its continents and tesserae were shaped by processes similar to those on Earth.

Could Venus Have Supported Life?

The overarching question that the DAVINCI mission seeks to answer is whether Venus, often called Earth’s twin, could have once been a habitable planet. With its thick, sulfuric atmosphere and surface temperatures hot enough to melt lead, Venus today is a far cry from a world capable of sustaining life. However, many scientists believe that Venus might have had a temperate climate billions of years ago, complete with oceans and rivers. By exploring regions like Alpha Regio, the DAVINCI mission hopes to uncover evidence that Venus once harbored the conditions necessary for liquid water—a crucial ingredient for life as we know it.

The mission’s findings could reshape our understanding of planetary evolution and help answer the question of why Venus and Earth, two planets of similar size and composition, took such drastically different paths. As Garvin noted, “This is a story of a planet that could have been like Earth but somehow changed dramatically.”

Preparing for Future Missions

NASA’s DAVINCI mission is part of a larger effort to explore Venus, which includes the upcoming VERITAS and EnVision missions. Together, these missions aim to paint a more complete picture of Venus’ past and present. By analyzing the data collected by DAVINCI and its successors, scientists hope to unlock the secrets of Venus’ atmosphere, surface, and potential for past habitability.

As we prepare to learn more about Venus, the DAVINCI mission represents a bold step forward in understanding not just our neighboring planet but also the broader processes that govern planetary evolution throughout the solar system.

After emerging from behind the sun’s glare, this long-period comet will be one of the brightest objects in the night sky, marking the first time since Comet NEOWISE in 2020 that a comet will be easily visible to the naked eye. According to Forbes, tonight—October 12, 2024—is the perfect time to see this remarkable comet as it rises into the evening sky.

Best Times and Locations to Spot Comet Tsuchinshan-ATLAS

Tonight, October 12, offers one of the best chances to see Comet Tsuchinshan-ATLAS. According to Forbes, the comet will be visible around 45 minutes after sunset from the northern hemisphere, but finding the comet might require some effort. It will appear low in the western sky, close to the horizon, near Venus and the bright star Arcturus. Patience and clear weather conditions will be necessary, as the comet will initially be set against the bright twilight, making it somewhat difficult to spot. However, with binoculars or a telescope, spotting the comet will be much easier, and the comet’s magnitude of +0.3 means it could also be seen with the naked eye.

To locate the comet, observers should find a vantage point with a clear view of the western horizon and scan for Venus, which will be bright and easy to locate. The comet will be situated below and slightly to the right of Venus, near Arcturus, though binoculars will enhance the view considerably. Comet Tsuchinshan-ATLAS will continue to rise higher in the sky over the next few nights, making it easier to see each evening as it moves away from the sun’s glare and into darker skies.

The next ten nights represent the best viewing window, with October 14 and October 15 likely being the best nights for observers. According to Sky & Telescope, the comet will be more prominently positioned against a darker backdrop, which will make it easier to spot and observe without the interference of bright twilight.

Why Comet Tsuchinshan-ATLAS is a Rare Celestial Event

Comet Tsuchinshan-ATLAS is no ordinary visitor to our skies. As a long-period comet from the Oort Cloud, it originates from the distant outer reaches of our solar system, making its journey to the inner solar system only once every 80,000 years. This makes tonight’s opportunity to observe the comet particularly special. The comet’s journey brings it not only into the line of sight of observers on Earth, but also to a brightness that makes it easily visible in the evening sky—a rarity for long-period comets.

Forbes notes that this is the brightest comet visible since Comet NEOWISE graced our skies in 2020, and its proximity to Earth this weekend gives it added visibility. The comet reached its closest point to the sun on September 27 and has now emerged from the sun’s glare, making it visible after sunset. According to Sky & Telescope, “The comet will appear higher in the sky and become easier to spot through the weekend.”

What sets Comet Tsuchinshan-ATLAS apart from many other comets is its brightness and proximity to Earth during this pass. With a magnitude of +0.3, the comet is brighter than Halley’s Comet, which last passed close to Earth in 1986. Observers will have the opportunity to watch as the comet continues to move across the sky, growing fainter as it recedes from Earth over the next week. Given its long orbit, this is truly a once-in-a-lifetime event for anyone lucky enough to catch a glimpse of this brilliant celestial traveler.

Viewing Tips for Tonight and the Coming Days

For those hoping to spot Comet Tsuchinshan-ATLAS tonight or in the next few days, it’s important to choose a viewing location carefully. The ideal spot will be one with a clear view of the western horizon and minimal light pollution. Binoculars or a small telescope will enhance the view, but for those in areas with dark skies, the comet could also be visible with the naked eye.

While tonight offers a great opportunity to view the comet, the coming week also presents excellent viewing conditions. As the comet rises higher into the sky, it will become easier to see against a darker night sky, with October 14 and 15 expected to be the best viewing nights. The comet will remain visible until October 21, after which it will gradually fade from view as it moves away from Earth.

Although the waxing gibbous moon will be illuminated at 73% tonight, it shouldn’t interfere much with viewing the comet, as it will set early enough to leave the night sky dark. The main challenge will be spotting the comet in the twilight, but once found, it should be a spectacular sight as it glows brightly in the sky.

What Makes C/2024 S1 A 'Sungrazer'?

A sungrazer comet is a comet that passes extremely close to the Sun, often coming within just a few million miles of the star’s surface. These comets are particularly exciting to observe because their close approach to the Sun often causes them to brighten dramatically, but it also puts them at risk of disintegrating due to the intense heat and gravitational forces they encounter.

C/2024 S1 will make its closest approach to the Sun, known as perihelion, on October 28, coming within just 765,000 miles (1.2 million kilometers) of the Sun’s surface. This proximity makes the comet a true sungrazer, and astronomers are unsure whether it will survive this close encounter. If the comet manages to endure the intense heat, it will be catapulted back into the outer solar system, and it may continue to brighten as it moves away from the Sun.

Key Dates for Viewing the Comet

The new comet C/2024 S1 will be closest to Earth on October 24, coming within 81.8 million miles (131.6 million kilometers) of our planet. At its peak brightness, which is expected to occur between October 24 and October 28, the comet could become brighter than Venus and may be visible to the naked eye under favorable conditions.

However, the best opportunity to view C/2024 S1 will be in the Southern Hemisphere, particularly just before dawn when the comet will be high in the sky. In the Northern Hemisphere, skywatchers may still have a chance to see the comet between October 29 and 31, though it will likely be dimmer by that time. For those hoping to catch a glimpse, using binoculars or a small telescope can significantly improve the chances of seeing the comet’s details.

A Rare Green Glow

What sets C/2024 S1 apart from other comets is its unusual green glow, which has been reported by early observations. The comet’s vibrant color is caused by the presence of dicarbon molecules in its coma—the cloud of gas and dust surrounding the comet’s nucleus. When exposed to sunlight, these dicarbon molecules emit a green light, giving the comet a distinctive appearance.

This green coloration is similar to the phenomenon observed in the “devil comet” (12P/Pons-Brooks) earlier in the year, which also glowed green as it approached the Sun. Such a glow is relatively rare among comets and adds to the spectacle of C/2024 S1 as it travels through the inner solar system.

Will the Comet Survive its Solar Encounter?

While the discovery of C/2024 S1 has sparked excitement among astronomers and skywatchers, there is no guarantee that the comet will survive its encounter with the Sun. Sungrazing comets often disintegrate when they come too close to the Sun, torn apart by the Sun’s gravitational pull or vaporized by its intense heat. In April 2024, another sungrazer comet was observed approaching the Sun but disintegrated shortly after making its closest pass.

If C/2024 S1 does break apart during its solar flyby, it may not be visible for long after its perihelion on October 28. However, if it manages to survive, the comet could put on a spectacular show as it moves away from the Sun and continues its journey through space.

How to Track C/2024 S1

Skywatchers eager to track the comet’s progress can use online tools such as TheSkyLive.com, which provides real-time data on the comet’s location and visibility. For those with access to binoculars or a telescope, these tools can help determine the best times and locations for observing C/2024 S1 in the night sky.

The comet’s brightness and visibility will depend on several factors, including its proximity to the Sun and Earth, as well as local weather conditions. Observers in areas with clear, dark skies will have the best chances of seeing the comet at its peak brightness.

A Month of Rare Celestial Events

October 2024 has proven to be an extraordinary month for comet enthusiasts. Comet Tsuchinshan–ATLAS, which made its closest approach to Earth on October 12, has been visible throughout the first half of the month. Although it is now beginning to fade from view, Tsuchinshan–ATLAS provided skywatchers with stunning views and an opportunity to capture photographs of its journey.

Now, with C/2024 S1 making its approach, the skies offer yet another rare opportunity to witness a sungrazer comet. Whether or not the comet survives its encounter with the Sun, the discovery of C/2024 S1 has made October a month to remember for stargazers and comet enthusiasts around the world.

Unveiling Earth's Invisible Radiation Belts

During the August 2024 lunar-Earth flyby, NASA's JENI (Jovian Energetic Neutrals and Ions) instrument, developed by the Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory (APL), captured unprecedented images of the radiation belts. These belts are invisible to traditional cameras, but JENI’s advanced sensors can detect energetic neutral atoms emitted by charged particles as they interact with Earth’s atmospheric hydrogen gas.

JENI's images provided an extraordinarily detailed view of the million-degree plasma halo that encircles Earth, revealing the intricate structure of the Van Allen radiation belts. As explained by Matina Gkioulidou, deputy lead of JENI at APL, “As soon as we saw the crisp, new images, high fives went around the room. It was clear we had captured the vast ring of hot plasma encircling Earth in unprecedented detail, an achievement that has sparked excitement for what is to come at Jupiter.”

This achievement is significant for scientists because it enhances the understanding of how magnetic fields and charged particles interact in space, which is crucial for predicting space weather. The highly detailed images will assist researchers in developing models to better understand radiation hazards in space environments, both around Earth and for future exploration missions to other planets.

A Historic Flyby and Data Collection

The flyby was not just a routine maneuver but a crucial part of JUICE’s mission as it prepares for its eventual arrival at Jupiter. On August 19-20, 2024, the spacecraft performed a double gravity assist, a first in space exploration, which allowed JUICE to gain speed and adjust its trajectory. This technique will be used multiple times during its mission to navigate the Solar System efficiently.

During the 30-minute flyby of the Moon, JUICE's JoEE (Jovian Energetic Electrons) instrument was activated. As the spacecraft passed just 465 miles above the lunar surface, it collected data on how charged particles and plasma interact with Earth's only natural satellite. These measurements are a precursor to the detailed data JUICE is expected to collect when it reaches Jupiter’s moons, where the radiation environment is far more intense.

On August 20, JUICE crossed through Earth's magnetosphere, traveling approximately 37,000 miles above the Pacific Ocean. This encounter provided JENI and JoEE with a unique opportunity to collect detailed data on the energetic ion and electron environment that defines the radiation belts. Pontus Brandt, principal investigator of JoEE and JENI, noted, “The richness of the data from our deep-dive through the magnetosphere is astounding. JENI’s image of the entire system we just flew through was the cherry on top.”

Implications for Space Exploration

The Van Allen radiation belts present a significant challenge for space missions, especially those involving human exploration. The high-energy particles within the belts can damage sensitive electronics and pose serious health risks to astronauts. The data collected by JUICE’s instruments will help scientists better understand how to protect both spacecraft and crew members during long-term missions to destinations like the Moon and Mars.

The detailed study of Earth’s radiation environment, along with the insights gained from future observations at Jupiter, will be invaluable in planning for extended human presence in deep space. As JUICE moves forward on its mission, it will continue to collect critical data during flybys of Venus and Earth in 2025 and 2026, respectively, before reaching Jupiter in 2031.

This groundbreaking image, along with the rich data collected during JUICE's flyby, underscores the importance of international collaboration between NASA and the European Space Agency (ESA). Together, they are expanding our understanding of radiation environments not only around Earth but also across the Solar System.

This newly discovered planet, named Barnard b, is a small, rocky world with at least half the mass of Venus and completes an orbit around its star in just three Earth days. This breakthrough is the result of five years of meticulous observations by a team using state-of-the-art telescopes, shedding new light on the planets in our immediate cosmic vicinity.

Discovery of Barnard b

The discovery of Barnard b is a culmination of years of research and technological advancements. Using the Very Large Telescope (VLT) located at the European Southern Observatory (ESO) in Chile, astronomers were able to detect the planet’s faint gravitational signal through a method called radial velocity, which measures the wobble in the star caused by the planet’s gravitational pull. The ESPRESSO instrument on the VLT was crucial in detecting Barnard b’s signal, which was subsequently verified with additional data from other exoplanet-hunting tools, including HARPS (High Accuracy Radial Velocity Planet Searcher) at La Silla Observatory and CARMENES in Spain.

This discovery marks a significant moment in the search for exoplanets around Barnard’s star. Despite an earlier detection attempt in 2018, which hinted at a planet in this system, astronomers were not able to confirm it until now. Jonay González Hernández, the lead author of the study from the Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias, said, “Even if it took a long time, we were always confident that we could find something.” After years of refining their methods and gathering data, the team has finally confirmed Barnard b’s existence, providing strong evidence that the nearest single star to our Sun hosts a planetary system.

Barnard’s star, located in the constellation Ophiuchus, has long been a primary target for astronomers searching for nearby exoplanets. As the second-closest star system to Earth after the Alpha Centauri system, Barnard’s star presents a unique opportunity for studying the formation and characteristics of planets around red dwarf stars—a type of star that is smaller and cooler than the Sun. Red dwarfs are known to host smaller, rocky planets, making them ideal for detecting low-mass exoplanets like Barnard b.

Characteristics of Barnard b

Barnard b is particularly intriguing because of its low mass and close orbit around its star. The planet orbits Barnard’s star at a distance 20 times closer than Mercury orbits the Sun, completing a full orbit in just 3.15 Earth days. Despite orbiting a cooler star, Barnard b has a surface temperature of approximately 125°C (257°F), making it too hot to support liquid water. González Hernández explained, “Even if the star is about 2500 degrees cooler than our Sun, it is too hot there to maintain liquid water on the surface.” This insight rules out the possibility of the planet being habitable, but it provides valuable data on the diversity of planetary systems in our cosmic neighborhood.

What makes Barnard b stand out is its sub-Earth mass, making it one of the smallest exoplanets discovered to date. With at least half the mass of Venus, Barnard b is part of a growing list of low-mass planets found around red dwarfs. Planets like Barnard b are particularly valuable for research because they offer insights into how planets form and evolve around stars that differ significantly from our own Sun. Red dwarfs, which are more abundant in the universe than stars like the Sun, often host rocky planets that could provide new clues about planetary formation.

Barnard’s star, a red dwarf, emits far less light and heat than the Sun, but because Barnard b orbits so close to it, the planet’s temperature remains high. This discovery highlights the challenges of finding habitable planets around stars that are cooler than our Sun. While Barnard b lies well outside the habitable zone, where liquid water could exist, its discovery opens the door to the possibility of finding other planets in this system that might be in more temperate orbits.

Potential for More Discoveries

In addition to Barnard b, the research team has identified three more potential exoplanets orbiting Barnard’s star. While these planets have not yet been confirmed, preliminary signals suggest that the Barnard system could host multiple planets. The team is continuing their observations using the ESPRESSO instrument, which is capable of detecting even smaller planets and confirming the presence of additional worlds in the system. As Alejandro Suárez Mascareño, co-author of the study, explained, “We now need to continue observing this star to confirm the other candidate signals.”

The possibility of more planets orbiting Barnard’s star is exciting because it suggests that multi-planet systems may be more common than previously thought, even around nearby stars. Barnard b joins a growing list of low-mass planets discovered in our cosmic neighborhood, including Proxima b and Proxima d, both of which orbit Proxima Centauri, the closest star to the Sun. These discoveries indicate that our solar system may be surrounded by a rich diversity of planetary systems, each with its own unique characteristics.

The discovery of Barnard b and the potential for additional planets around Barnard’s star also demonstrates the power of modern astronomical instruments like ESPRESSO and HARPS. These tools are allowing astronomers to detect smaller and more distant planets than ever before, helping to build a more complete picture of the exoplanet population in our galaxy.

This remarkable discovery, led by researchers from the University of Maryland, challenges long-standing theories about the behavior of the planet's deep interior, specifically within the mantle transition zone. The findings suggest that remnants of an ancient tectonic plate, which sank over 100 million years ago, are influencing the mantle’s structure and dynamics today, offering a new lens through which to study the geological forces that shaped our planet.

Uncovering the Buried Seafloor: A Seismic Breakthrough

Using cutting-edge seismic imaging technology, a team led by Jingchuan Wang, a postdoctoral researcher in geology at the University of Maryland, has mapped out a mysterious portion of Earth's mantle transition zone, located approximately 410 to 660 kilometers beneath the ocean floor. This section of the mantle, spanning a vast area east of the East Pacific Rise, was found to be unusually thick and cold. The researchers believe this anomaly represents the remains of an ancient oceanic plate that subducted into the Earth’s interior during the Mesozoic era, between 250 and 120 million years ago.

Wang and his colleagues used a seismic technique known as SS precursor analysis, which involves examining the way seismic waves bounce off boundaries within Earth's deep layers before reaching the surface. Through this method, they were able to detect what Wang described as “a fossilized fingerprint of an ancient piece of seafloor that subducted into the Earth approximately 250 million years ago.” The slab, preserved in the mantle transition zone, has remained trapped for over 100 million years, providing researchers with a unique glimpse into Earth’s distant past.

The Impact on Mantle Dynamics and Plate Tectonics

One of the most intriguing aspects of the discovery is the effect the ancient sunken plate has on the Large Low Shear Velocity Province (LLSVP), a massive region of Earth's lower mantle characterized by slower-than-average seismic waves. The LLSVP, which lies beneath the Pacific Ocean, has long puzzled scientists due to its unusual structure. The team’s findings reveal that the ancient seafloor may have split the LLSVP, acting like a wedge as it descended into the mantle.

This new information not only helps explain the curious structure of the Pacific LLSVP, but also provides a deeper understanding of how mantle convection—the slow, churning movement of Earth’s interior—affects the planet’s surface over millions of years. According to Wang, “Our discovery opens up new questions about how the deep Earth influences what we see on the surface across vast distances and timescales.” The research suggests that the mantle transition zone, which separates Earth’s upper and lower mantles, acts as a barrier that can slow down the sinking of subducted plates, a finding that challenges previous models of how material moves through the planet.

The Phoenix Plate: A Relic from The Age of Dinosaurs

The researchers propose that the ancient subducted slab may belong to the Phoenix Plate, a tectonic plate that once dominated a large portion of the Pacific Ocean before it was consumed by intraoceanic subduction. This process, which occurs when one oceanic plate is forced beneath another, resulted in the plate sinking deep into Earth’s mantle. As it descended, the plate carried cooler material from the ocean floor into the hot mantle, leaving behind a cold thermal signature that is still detectable today.

This subduction event, which occurred during the age of dinosaurs, may have shaped many of the features of Earth’s mantle that scientists are only now beginning to understand. “We found that in this region, the material was sinking at about half the speed we expected,” Wang explained, “which suggests that the mantle transition zone can act like a barrier and slow down the movement of material through the Earth.” This unexpected finding indicates that some oceanic slabs may become "stuck" in the mantle transition zone for extended periods, rather than descending directly into the lower mantle.

A New Understanding of Earth’s Geological Past

The discovery of this ancient seafloor has significant implications for how scientists understand Earth's geological processes, particularly those related to subduction and mantle dynamics. Typically, subduction zones are associated with surface-level phenomena like volcanic eruptions and earthquakes, but Wang’s research shows that ancient subducted plates can remain preserved deep within Earth’s interior, influencing mantle structures for hundreds of millions of years. This new information could lead to revisions in models of plate tectonics and provide a better understanding of how Earth's surface has evolved over geological timescales.

The study, published in Science Advances on September 27, 2024, marks the beginning of a new era in the study of Earth’s deep interior. The researchers plan to extend their seismic imaging work to other parts of the Pacific and beyond, with the hope of discovering additional ancient subducted structures. “This is just the beginning,” Wang noted. “We believe that there are many more ancient structures waiting to be discovered in Earth’s deep interior. Each one has the potential to reveal many new insights about our planet’s complex past—and even lead to a better understanding of other planets beyond ours.”

Wang’s work not only opens up new avenues for studying Earth’s deep mantle but also has the potential to offer clues about the geological processes of other planets. By understanding how tectonic plates have moved and interacted over Earth's history, scientists may be able to apply these models to the study of Mars, Venus, and other rocky planets in our solar system. The insights gained from this research could help explain the geological evolution of planets that lack plate tectonics, offering a broader perspective on planetary formation and behavior.

Yuri Beletsky - This morning, I captured another image of Comet C/2023 A3 (Tsuchinshan-ATLAS) from the site in the Atacama Desert, Chile . The view was absolutely stunning !!! The comet is clearly visible visually. My gear: Nikon D810a camera with a 135mm lens. Exposure: 20 x 30 seconds

United States: A different window for optimal viewing

In the United States, the comet will also be visible, but slightly different viewing conditions apply. From September 27 to September 30, the comet will be best observed in the southeastern sky, about an hour before dawn. Similar to Europe, it is important to find a location free from light pollution to maximize visibility. National parks and rural areas will offer some of the best viewing opportunities.

For Americans who miss the morning window, the comet will be visible again in mid-October. On October 13, it will be at its closest to Earth, around 71 million kilometers away, and will be observable after sunset, looking west. This second appearance promises a spectacular display, especially if you can find a location with a wide, clear horizon.

Europe: Best time and location to observe

In Europe, skywatchers will have their first chance to view the comet in the early morning from September 27 to September 30. The ideal time is about an hour before sunrise, looking towards the southeastern horizon. To get the clearest view, it’s best to find a location away from urban light pollution and ensure an unobstructed view of the horizon. Binoculars or small telescopes will enhance the experience by revealing more details, such as the comet’s glowing tail of gas and dust.

For those in Europe who miss this early morning window, the comet will be visible again on October 13, 2024, just after sunset. At this time, it will appear in the western sky, providing an opportunity for evening observers to catch a glimpse of its bright, shimmering tail.

Southern Hemisphere: A more limited view

Observers in the Southern Hemisphere will also have a chance to see Tsuchinshan-ATLAS, but the visibility window may be more restricted compared to the Northern Hemisphere. The comet will be observable in the mornings from late September, particularly for those in higher latitudes closer to the equator. Those in southern regions like Australia and South Africa should follow local observation guides for exact times, but the comet’s visibility will generally follow the same patterns as in Europe and the U.S.

The science behind the comet’s brilliance

The Tsuchinshan-ATLAS comet has drawn attention due to its expected magnitude, which could reach between -3 and -4. For comparison, this makes it potentially brighter than Venus, one of the most luminous objects in the night sky. Its brightness could rival that of the famous Hale-Bopp comet, last seen in 1997, which reached a magnitude of -1.8.

This comet hails from the distant Oort Cloud, a region at the outermost edge of the solar system where many comets originate. As it nears the Sun, its tail—composed of gas and dust—reflects sunlight, creating a visually stunning display. For astronomers, this is also a unique opportunity to study the behavior and composition of such a rare celestial objec

This extraordinary comet has not been near the Sun for approximately 80,000 years, making its upcoming approach a once-in-a-lifetime event for modern observers. No matter which continent you find yourself on this weekend, the Tsuchinshan-ATLAS comet promises to deliver one of the most dazzling astronomical spectacles of 2024.

The Planet’s Survival and the White Dwarf’s Violent Past

This Earth-like planet, with a mass approximately 1.9 times that of Earth, is orbiting its white dwarf star at a distance of 2.1 astronomical units (AU), which is about twice the distance between Earth and the Sun. This current position suggests that the planet was once much closer to its star before the star evolved into a red giant, expanding dramatically and potentially engulfing nearby planets.

White dwarfs are the remnants of stars like the Sun after they exhaust their nuclear fuel and go through a phase of instability. During this red giant phase, the star can expand to hundreds of times its original size, dramatically altering the orbits of any surviving planets. Some models predict that Earth may face a similar future when the Sun enters its red giant phase in about 5 billion years, potentially expanding to engulf the inner planets of the solar system, including Mercury, Venus, and Earth. However, this new discovery suggests that survival might be possible under the right circumstances. According to Keming Zhang, an astronomer from the University of California who led the study, “The simplest explanation is that the planet survived through the red giant host star.”

The white dwarf in this system, which has around half the mass of the Sun, shows that it was once similar in size to our Sun before it expelled its outer layers and collapsed into a dense stellar remnant. This star now glows faintly from residual heat rather than nuclear fusion. The fact that the planet survived such a destructive process challenges some of the more pessimistic models that predict Earth’s destruction when the Sun becomes a red giant. Zhang suggests that these models “may be too pessimistic,” adding that "at the end of the day, Earth may just narrowly escape being engulfed, similar to our discovered system."

Microlensing: Unlocking Distant Planetary Systems

The discovery of this planet was made possible through a rare phenomenon known as microlensing. This occurs when a massive object, such as a star or a planet, passes in front of a more distant light source, causing the light to bend and magnify due to the gravitational field. In this case, the white dwarf and its planetary companion were detected when they passed in front of a distant background star, located about 26,100 light-years away. The gravitational lensing effect caused the light from the distant star to be magnified by over 1,000 times, enabling astronomers to study the system in remarkable detail.

Zhang explained the process: “The white dwarf lens was nearly perfectly aligned with the background source star during the event, causing it to be magnified by over 1,000 times.” This rare alignment provided the researchers with crucial information about the planet’s mass and orbit, as well as the presence of a brown dwarf orbiting the white dwarf. The brown dwarf, with a mass about 30 times that of Jupiter, is an object that is too large to be classified as a planet but too small to be a star. These objects add to the complexity of the system, providing scientists with valuable data on how planets and sub-stellar objects behave around dying stars.

Microlensing is becoming an increasingly important tool for finding distant planets that are otherwise difficult to detect. As astronomer Joshua Bloom of UC Berkeley noted, “There is a whole set of worlds that are now opening up to us through the microlensing channel, and what’s exciting is that we’re on the precipice of finding exotic configurations like this.”

Implications for Earth’s Fate

This discovery has major implications for understanding the future of our own solar system. The planet's current position, at 2.1 AU from its white dwarf star, is roughly where Earth might end up after the Sun completes its red giant phase. This suggests that Earth could potentially survive the violent transformation of the Sun, albeit in a much-altered state. While life as we know it on Earth would likely not endure such extreme conditions, this discovery hints at the possibility that planetary survival is not out of the question.

Zhang points out that models currently disagree on whether Earth will be engulfed by the Sun or pushed out to a more distant orbit. “Models currently disagree whether or not Earth can avoid being engulfed because we do not know the mass loss rate of the red giant sun precisely enough,” Zhang said. This new data, however, offers a more optimistic view, suggesting that planets could indeed survive a star’s death, even if they no longer lie within the habitable zone.

While life on Earth will likely become impossible long before the Sun reaches its red giant phase—due to the gradual increase in the Sun’s heat over the next billion years, which will evaporate Earth’s oceans—there is still a faint glimmer of hope for survival beyond this catastrophic event. As Zhang notes, “By the time the Sun becomes a red giant, the habitable zone will move to around Jupiter and Saturn's orbit, and many of these moons will become ocean planets.” These moons, such as Europa, Callisto, and Ganymede, could provide future havens for humanity as the outer solar system becomes more hospitable.

Future Prospects for Studying Distant Planetary Systems

The discovery of this planetary system also underscores the power of microlensing as a tool for discovering distant exoplanets and studying the systems that orbit dead stars. The research team believes that similar systems will become easier to find in the future, especially with the upcoming launch of NASA’s Nancy Grace Roman Telescope, which is set to specialize in microlensing events and is expected to uncover many more Earth-like planets orbiting distant stars.

“There is some luck involved,” Zhang admitted, “because you'd expect fewer than one in 10 microlensing stars with planets to be white dwarfs.” However, the discovery of this planet, alongside the brown dwarf in the system, adds valuable data to our understanding of how planets behave around stellar remnants. This information will be crucial as scientists continue to explore how planetary systems evolve and survive beyond their stars' main-sequence lifetimes.

The findings give humanity a rare glimpse into the distant future of our own solar system and how planets may navigate the chaos of their star's death, offering both scientific insight and a glimmer of hope for Earth's ultimate survival.

A Stunning View from The ISS

The footage recorded by Dominick offers a rare and breathtaking view of Comet Tsuchinshan-ATLAS rising from the Earth’s horizon. Dominick captured the video from the cupola window of the ISS, a vantage point that provides unparalleled views of space and the planet below. In his post on X (formerly Twitter), Dominick explained: “So far, Comet Tsuchinshan-ATLAS looks like a fuzzy star to the naked eye looking out the cupola windows. But with a 200mm, f2 lens at 1/8s exposure, you can really start to see it. This comet is going to make for some really cool images as it gets closer to the sun. For now, a time-lapse preview.”

So far Comet Tsuchinshan-ATLAS looks like a fuzzy star to the naked eye looking out the cupola windows. But with a 200mm, f2 lens at 1/8s exposure you can really start to see it. This comet is going to make for some really cool images as it gets closer to the sun. For now a… pic.twitter.com/JstaSLJ4Ui

— Matthew Dominick (@dominickmatthew) September 19, 2024

The comet is still relatively dim to the naked eye, but with the aid of a 200mm lens, Dominick was able to capture the comet's gaseous tail and its motion across the sky as it approaches perihelion, the closest point in its orbit to the Sun. The video, along with stunning images of auroras and meteor trails, is part of Dominick's astrophotography projects from space, showcasing unique cosmic phenomena from a perspective only a few humans have experienced.

The Discovery and Journey of Comet Tsuchinshan-ATLAS

Comet Tsuchinshan-ATLAS was co-discovered in January 2023 by the Tsuchinshan Observatory (also known as the Purple Mountain Observatory in China) and the Asteroid Terrestrial-impact Last Alert System (ATLAS). Initially classified as an asteroid, subsequent observations revealed that it was, in fact, a comet, estimated to be between 1 and 2 kilometers in diameter. The comet’s retrograde orbit, meaning it travels in the opposite direction to most planets and other celestial objects, has been of particular interest to astronomers tracking its movement.

The comet is believed to originate from the Oort Cloud, a distant and icy region that surrounds the solar system, thought to be the home of many long-period comets. Objects from the Oort Cloud can take millions of years to complete an orbit around the Sun. Comet Tsuchinshan-ATLAS, with its distinctive path, is likely on a one-time journey toward the inner solar system before it is flung back into interstellar space, possibly never to return.

Increasing Visibility and Potential Brightness

The excitement surrounding Comet Tsuchinshan-ATLAS has steadily grown over the past year. When first discovered, it was extremely faint, visible only through powerful telescopes. By mid-2024, however, the comet had brightened significantly, making it detectable through medium-sized telescopes. Now, as it approaches perihelion on September 27, 2024, it has crossed the threshold for naked-eye visibility.

Dominick's imagery from space comes at a time when the comet is expected to become even more visible. According to Dr. Alfredo Carpineti, writing for IFLScience, "The comet has crossed the brightness threshold to be visible to the naked eye," although currently, from Earth, it may still appear as "a fuzzy dot." With modest magnification, however, viewers can begin to appreciate its full beauty, including its tail and the bright coma surrounding its nucleus. Carpineti notes that the best time to view the comet will be in early October, with the October 9th window being particularly promising for skywatchers.

A Cosmic Show in October

The comet’s upcoming passage offers skywatchers a rare opportunity to observe what could become a bright and striking object in the night sky. As the comet continues toward the Sun, it may reach a brightness comparable to some of the brightest planets. Conservative estimates suggest that Comet Tsuchinshan-ATLAS could rank among the top 50 brightest objects visible in the sky, while more optimistic predictions suggest it may become as bright as Jupiter or even Venus, two of the most luminous celestial bodies.

After its perihelion, the comet will continue to brighten as it makes its closest approach to Earth on October 12, 2024. During this period, the comet may be visible around sunset, particularly in the Northern Hemisphere, providing a dramatic display for stargazers. The comet’s passage will also be closely watched by astronomers for any signs of disintegration, a fate that has been speculated but not yet confirmed. Earlier in 2024, there were concerns that the comet might break apart as it neared the Sun, but recent observations indicate that it has remained intact, at least for now.

A Once-in-a-Lifetime Event

Comet Tsuchinshan-ATLAS is set to provide a dazzling spectacle in the sky over the coming weeks, but this opportunity will be fleeting. Given its current trajectory, the comet will not return to the solar system for millions of years, if at all. Dr. Carpineti of IFLScience emphasizes the unique nature of this event, urging skywatchers to seize the moment: “The hope now is it will get much brighter during the encounter... Keep your eyes to the sky.”

As it passes between the Sun and Earth, the dust particles from the comet's tail could scatter sunlight, further enhancing its brightness. This effect may create a "surge" in luminosity, making it even more prominent in the sky. Some astronomers predict that on October 9, this brightness could make it one of the most easily visible objects in the evening sky. Whatever its final appearance, the comet’s journey through the inner solar system is a rare astronomical event, and one that will not be repeated in our lifetimes.

For those hoping to catch a glimpse of Comet Tsuchinshan-ATLAS, October presents the best window of opportunity, as the comet makes its way past Earth and continues on its voyage into the depths of space. Whether viewed from the ground or, for a lucky few, from space, this comet promises to be a highlight of 2024’s astronomical calendar.

Viewing Highlights: When and Where to Watch the Comet

Comet A3 will be most visible during late September and throughout October 2024. The two key dates for skywatchers are September 27 and October 12:

• September 27, 2024: This is the date of the comet’s perihelion, when it will pass closest to the Sun. At this time, the comet will be visible primarily in the Southern Hemisphere, just before sunrise. It will be positioned in the constellation Leo and will shine brightest as it skims closest to our star, at a distance of around 36.4 million miles (58.6 million kilometers).
• October 12, 2024: The comet will reach its closest approach to Earth, passing roughly 44 million miles away. Observers in the Northern Hemisphere will have their best chance to see it after sunset. At this point, the comet will be in the constellation Ophiuchus, located above the western horizon.

The comet is expected to be a prominent object in the night sky, with estimates placing it among the 50 brightest objects visible. Some forecasts are more optimistic, suggesting it could be even more brilliant than Jupiter, which would make it a breathtaking sight.

The Comet’s Dazzling Tail and Forward Scattering Phenomenon

One of the most anticipated aspects of Comet Tsuchinshan-ATLAS is its tail, which could be particularly striking. As with most comets, the tail is composed of dust and ice particles that are ejected as the comet’s nucleus heats up near the Sun. What sets Comet A3 apart, however, is the possibility that it may have two distinct tails—one white and one blue—depending on how the material reacts to solar radiation.

Astronomers also expect a phenomenon known as forward scattering to enhance the comet’s visibility. This occurs when light from the Sun is scattered directly back toward Earth, making the comet appear brighter than it otherwise might. As a result, Jamie Carter, writing for Forbes, explains that this orientation in the solar system “should play in our favor” and may result in the comet reflecting more light toward Earth, enhancing its visibility during its peak brightness.

Tips for the Best Viewing Experience

To maximize your chances of seeing this rare celestial event, it’s important to plan ahead. Observing Comet Tsuchinshan-ATLAS will require favorable conditions, especially during its perihelion and closest approach to Earth. Here are a few tips:

1. Find a dark sky location: Light pollution can greatly diminish the spectacle of a comet. Head to a place with minimal artificial lighting, such as a Dark Sky Reserve or a remote area away from city lights.
2. Clear skies are essential: Viewing a comet, particularly when it’s low on the horizon, is highly dependent on weather conditions. Ensure you have clear skies for the best possible view.
3. Observe just before sunrise or after sunset: For viewers in the Southern Hemisphere, the comet will be visible before dawn between September 27 and October 2. After October 9, those in the Northern Hemisphere should look to the western sky after sunset.
4. Use binoculars or a telescope: While Comet A3 is expected to be visible to the naked eye, using a small telescope or even binoculars can enhance the experience by revealing more details, such as the structure of the tail.

Astronaut’s View from the International Space Station

As Comet Tsuchinshan-ATLAS approaches perihelion, astronauts aboard the International Space Station (ISS) have already had the chance to glimpse this extraordinary sight. Matthew Dominick, an astronaut aboard the ISS, shared a stunning video of the comet rising from the edge of Earth as seen from the station’s cupola window. In his post on X (formerly Twitter), he remarked, “So far Comet Tsuchinshan-ATLAS looks like a fuzzy star to the naked eye looking out the cupola windows. But with a 200mm, f2 lens at 1/8s exposure you can really start to see it. This comet is going to make for some really cool images as it gets closer to the sun. For now, a timelapse preview.”

So far Comet Tsuchinshan-ATLAS looks like a fuzzy star to the naked eye looking out the cupola windows. But with a 200mm, f2 lens at 1/8s exposure you can really start to see it. This comet is going to make for some really cool images as it gets closer to the sun. For now a… pic.twitter.com/JstaSLJ4Ui

— Matthew Dominick (@dominickmatthew) September 19, 2024

Dominick’s unique vantage point offers a breathtaking perspective of the comet, which currently appears as a small, fuzzy dot without the aid of magnification. As it approaches the Sun, however, the comet is expected to brighten significantly, providing even more opportunities for extraordinary imagery from space and Earth alike.

Why Comet Tsuchinshan-ATLAS is a Once-in-a-lifetime Event

Comet A3 is not just another comet—it’s a long-period comet originating from the Oort Cloud, a distant region of our solar system filled with icy bodies and comets. With an orbital period of approximately 80,000 years, this comet has spent most of its time in the outer reaches of the solar system. Its passage through the inner solar system in 2024 marks the only opportunity in our lifetimes to witness it.

Discovered independently by astronomers at China’s Tsuchinshan Observatory and South Africa’s Asteroid Terrestrial-impact Last Alert System (ATLAS), the comet’s journey offers a rare glimpse of a visitor from the farthest reaches of space. As Dr. Alfredo Carpineti from IFLScience notes, the comet is “just a day away from its closest encounter with the Sun,” and predictions of it being visible to the naked eye have already been confirmed. For several days after its perihelion, the comet will only be visible before dawn, but starting on October 9, it should be easily spotted at sunset.

Thanks to stable orbits that have persisted for most of its history, Earth has completed about 4.5 billion full trips around the sun. This monumental number not only provides insight into Earth's age but also highlights the extraordinary scale of time that governs our solar system. While the early solar system experienced significant gravitational disturbances, leading to shifting planetary positions, this chaotic phase ended relatively quickly. Since then, the orbital paths of planets like Earth have remained largely unchanged.

Inner planets: shorter orbits, more revolutions

While Earth's orbit is massive by human standards, other planets, particularly those closer to the sun, have made significantly more trips around our star. Mercury, with its much shorter orbital period of 88 Earth days, has completed an incredible 18.7 billion orbits in the same timeframe. Venus, which orbits every 225 Earth days, has circled the sun around 7.3 billion times, and Mars, with a period of 687 Earth days, has logged around 2.4 billion revolutions.

These inner planets orbit more quickly due to their proximity to the sun, where gravitational forces are stronger, resulting in faster orbital velocities. Each orbit provides essential data on the dynamics of the solar system and how planetary motion has remained consistent over eons.

The outer planets: slower giants, fewer laps

In contrast, the outer planets take much longer to complete a single orbit. Jupiter, the largest planet, has a 12-year orbit and has completed around 386 million trips around the sun. Saturn, taking about 29 Earth years per orbit, has made just over 150 million revolutions, while Neptune, the most distant, with its 165-year orbital period, has completed only 27.9 million orbits during its 4.5 billion-year existence.

These slower-moving giants provide a fascinating counterpoint to the speedier inner planets, offering insights into how orbital mechanics vary across the solar system.

A changing cosmic landscape

As stable as Earth's orbit has been, it's not permanent. In about 4.5 billion years, the sun will expand into a red giant, likely engulfing Mercury, Venus, and potentially even Earth. This transformation will radically alter the structure of the solar system, reshaping the orbits of the remaining planets.

The study of Earth's orbit and those of its neighbors offers more than just a history lesson; it provides a glimpse into the dynamic future of our planetary system.

Recent studies suggest that primordial black holes, which are believed to have formed in the immediate aftermath of the Big Bang, could pass through our solar system regularly. The detection of such objects would not only confirm their existence but could also unlock one of the greatest mysteries in modern astrophysics: the nature of dark matter.

What Are Primordial Black Holes and How Do They Differ From Other Black Holes?

Black holes come in various sizes, with stellar-mass black holes being the most commonly observed. These form from the gravitational collapse of massive stars and typically have masses ranging from five to ten times that of the Sun. However, primordial black holes are thought to be much smaller and lighter. These theoretical objects may have formed from tiny fluctuations in the density of the early universe, long before stars even existed. Their mass could be as small as that of an asteroid, and their size might be no larger than a grain of sand.

The uniqueness of primordial black holes lies in their formation process. "The black holes we consider in our work are at least 10 billion times lighter than the Sun and are barely larger in size than a hydrogen atom," said Sarah Geller, a theoretical physicist at the University of California at Santa Cruz. Unlike traditional black holes, these objects did not originate from collapsing stars but from the high-density conditions of the early universe, making them an intriguing candidate for dark matter.

If primordial black holes exist, they could provide the missing link to explain dark matter, which accounts for approximately 85% of all matter in the universe. "If there are lots of black holes out there, some of them must surely pass through our backyard every now and then," Geller added. Their small size and mass make direct observation extremely difficult, but their gravitational influence could reveal their presence.

Could a Black Hole Pass Through the Solar System?

A recent study has proposed that if primordial black holes are abundant, they might pass through the inner regions of the solar system as often as once every decade. As these black holes move through space, their gravitational pull could disturb the orbits of planets, moons, and other celestial bodies. These distortions, though small, could theoretically be detected with the right instruments.

The study focuses on how these black holes might affect the inner planets—Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars—by creating slight "wobbles" in their orbits. According to the researchers, the gravitational effects of such an encounter would be minimal but measurable. Benjamin Lehmann, a theoretical physicist at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), explained, "In principle, a primordial black hole's gravitational pull could produce wobbles in the orbits of objects in the solar system that are big enough for us to measure." These wobbles could serve as the first indirect evidence of the existence of primordial black holes.

However, detecting these disturbances is not straightforward. The study's authors admit that the gravitational effects would be subtle and might be difficult to observe with current technology. Lehmann emphasized that more sophisticated computer simulations and observational data are needed to make definitive claims. The team is now exploring the possibility of collaborating with experts at the Paris Observatory to refine their models and search for any potential signals of primordial black holes.

Are Current Technologies Capable of Detecting These Black Holes?

Although the idea of primordial black holes passing through the solar system is scientifically plausible, current observational tools may not yet be precise enough to detect them. A study published on arXiv explored how these black holes could impact the orbits of planets, asteroids, and comets. The team ran simulations to determine whether these effects would be significant enough to observe. Unfortunately, the results suggested that even after a decade of data collection, the gravitational influence of a primordial black hole would still be too small to measure.

The authors of the study concluded that while primordial black holes remain a possible explanation for dark matter, the likelihood of detecting them with present-day technology is slim. "Even if primordial black holes exist, their effect is way too tiny to observe in our solar system," wrote Brian Koberlein, a physicist and writer for Universe Today. This does not rule out the possibility that primordial black holes are out there, but it underscores the need for more advanced observational techniques.

Despite these challenges, the researchers remain optimistic. They are currently working on refining their models to increase the chances of detection. By analyzing long-term changes in the ephemerides—the tables used to describe the positions and motions of celestial bodies—they hope to uncover any signs of gravitational anomalies caused by primordial black holes. If successful, this method could finally provide the evidence needed to confirm the existence of these elusive objects.

What Would Primordial Black Holes Mean for Dark Matter Research?

The discovery of primordial black holes would be a game-changer for dark matter research. For decades, scientists have searched for particles that might account for the dark matter that permeates the universe. While many experiments have focused on detecting new particles, none have been successful. Primordial black holes offer an alternative explanation, one that does not rely on the discovery of exotic particles.

If primordial black holes are confirmed to exist, they could represent a significant portion of dark matter. Their gravitational influence on stars, galaxies, and other cosmic structures could explain many of the phenomena attributed to dark matter. However, as Sarah Geller pointed out, "We are not making any of the following claims—that primordial black holes definitely exist, that they make up most or all of the dark matter; or that they are definitely here in our solar system." Rather, the research suggests that if they do exist, primordial black holes could be an important piece of the dark matter puzzle.

Using the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) in Chile, the research team focused on R Doradus, a red giant star approximately 180 light-years from Earth. The observations, taken between July and August 2023, offer new insights into how stars like our Sun behave as they evolve into red giants.

A Closer Look at R Doradus and its Turbulent Surface

The star R Doradus, located in the southern constellation Dorado, is roughly 350 times larger than the Sun, making it an ideal candidate for high-resolution imaging. Astronomers used ALMA to capture a time-lapse of the star’s surface, showing massive bubbles of gas, each about 75 times the size of the Sun, rising and sinking back into the star. These bubbles are a result of convection, a process where hot gas rises from the star’s core to its surface before cooling and sinking back down. This convection helps to transport heavy elements, like carbon and nitrogen, throughout the star and into space, where they can eventually contribute to the formation of new stars and planets.

Lead researcher Wouter Vlemmings, from Chalmers University of Technology in Sweden, described the breakthrough: “This is the first time the bubbling surface of a real star can be shown in such a way.” He emphasized that the team had not expected the data to reveal such detailed convection patterns on the stellar surface. The study was published in the journal Nature, and the findings are expected to help scientists better understand the behavior of evolved stars.

Surprising Speed of Convection in Red Giants

While convection on the Sun occurs on a relatively slow timescale, with granules on the Sun's surface appearing and disappearing over several minutes, the convection on R Doradus operates on a much faster scale. The team observed that the bubbles on the surface of the red giant move on a one-month cycle, faster than what scientists had previously expected. This discovery suggests that convection behaves differently in stars as they age and expand into red giants. “We don’t yet know the reason for this difference,” Vlemmings said, adding that it highlights the need for further study into how stellar physics evolve in older stars.

Despite its enormous size, R Doradus has a mass similar to the Sun's. This makes it an important object of study because it provides clues to what might happen to our Sun when it enters its red giant phase in about five billion years. As stars like the Sun age, they expand significantly and go through a phase of intense mass loss, shedding much of their outer material into space. Observing this process in detail on R Doradus gives astronomers a rare opportunity to see the future of our own solar system.

Impact of ALMA's Observations on Stellar Physics

The ALMA images of R Doradus represent a significant leap forward in our ability to study distant stars. Prior to this, such detailed observations of convection were only possible on the Sun due to its proximity to Earth. Now, with ALMA's unprecedented resolution, astronomers can directly image the surfaces of distant stars, revealing the physical processes that drive their evolution. “It is spectacular that we can now directly image the details on the surface of stars so far away,” said Behzad Bojnodi Arbab, a doctoral student at Chalmers and co-author of the study.

The study also sheds light on a mystery regarding the star’s rotation. Previous ALMA data suggested that R Doradus was spinning much faster than expected for a red giant star. However, the new findings show that the high-speed rotation is not an illusion caused by the star’s bubbling surface, as had been proposed in a similar case involving Betelgeuse, another well-known red giant. Instead, the research team has confirmed that R Doradus has a slower rotation than initially suspected, offering new insights into the behavior of red giants.

Future Studies and Implications for Understanding Red Giants

The ability to track convection and other surface phenomena on distant stars like R Doradus is a major advancement in astrophysics. As red giants play a key role in the chemical enrichment of the universe, understanding their behavior is critical for grasping the lifecycle of stars and the formation of planetary systems. The study’s findings could have broader implications for how scientists model the late stages of stellar evolution, particularly for stars similar to the Sun.

As our Sun ages, it too will expand into a red giant and lose much of its mass, ultimately influencing the orbits of planets like Mercury and Venus. By studying stars like R Doradus, scientists can better predict how these processes will unfold in our own solar system and beyond.

The team plans to continue observing R Doradus with ALMA to gain further insights into the star’s convection and surface dynamics, contributing to a deeper understanding of stellar physics and the future of our Sun.

During its August 2024 flyby of Earth, Juice detected crucial life-signaling molecules in our planet's atmosphere. This achievement not only verifies that the spacecraft's instruments are fully operational but also sets the stage for the next phase of the mission, which aims to determine if Jupiter’s moons could support life.

Instruments Validate Detection of Life on Earth

During the flyby, two of Juice’s key scientific instruments—the Moons and Jupiter Imaging Spectrometer (MAJIS) and the Submillimetre Wave Instrument (SWI)—were put through rigorous tests. The SWI "listened" for signals from hundreds of molecules in Earth's atmosphere, detecting vital life elements like water and the so-called CHNOPS elements: carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorous, and sulfur. These elements are the fundamental building blocks of all known life forms.

According to ESA, “MAJIS also measured the composition of the atmosphere, detecting important molecules such as oxygen, ozone, carbon dioxide, and water.” These molecules are critical indicators of habitability, demonstrating that the instruments aboard Juice can successfully identify life-associated compounds. In addition, MAJIS provided detailed temperature maps of Earth’s surface, allowing the team to analyze conditions vital to sustaining life.

This success is an essential step for the mission, confirming that Juice’s instruments can detect life in environments where it is abundant—like Earth. Olivier Witasse, ESA’s Juice project scientist, remarked on the positive results, saying, “We are obviously not surprised by these results… it would have been extremely concerning to find out that Earth was not habitable! But they indicate that MAJIS and SWI will work very successfully at Jupiter, where they will help us investigate whether the icy moons could be potential habitats for past or present life.”

A Critical Step Toward Investigating Jupiter’s Icy Moons

This Earth flyby marks an essential milestone for Juice, as it prepares for the long journey to Jupiter and its moons. Scientists are particularly excited about Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto due to their potential to harbor life-sustaining environments beneath their thick icy shells. Subsurface oceans on these moons could have the right conditions for life to develop, particularly if heat from tidal forces or chemical interactions in the oceans can create habitable niches.

Juice’s instruments will play a key role in assessing the moons’ habitability. By analyzing their atmospheres, icy surfaces, and subsurface oceans, the mission aims to uncover whether life could exist—or have existed—on these distant worlds. As ESA explained, “SWI will study the composition of the planet and its icy moons, telling us more about their current climates, their origin, and their history.” The information gathered by Juice will provide critical insights into the moons’ potential for biological activity, both in the past and present.

Once Juice reaches Jupiter in 2031, it will begin an extensive study of the gas giant and its moons. The spacecraft will orbit Ganymede, the largest moon in the solar system, which is thought to contain more water than all of Earth’s oceans combined. Juice will analyze Ganymede’s ice-covered oceans, thin atmosphere, and magnetic field, looking for signs of habitability and possibly even life itself.

The Road Ahead: Flybys and Long-Term Exploration

While the detection of life-signaling molecules on Earth is an exciting achievement, Juice’s mission is far from over. The spacecraft is still in the early stages of its journey, with two more Earth flybys and one flyby of Venus scheduled before it reaches Jupiter. These flybys will provide crucial gravitational boosts to help the spacecraft cover the immense distance between Earth and Jupiter.

The flyby of Venus, scheduled for 2025, will offer another opportunity to test Juice’s instruments in a different planetary environment. Venus’s thick atmosphere, with its extreme temperatures and pressure, will provide a contrast to the more life-friendly conditions detected on Earth. Once the spacecraft completes its journey to Jupiter, its instruments will be fully calibrated and ready for the mission's primary objective: investigating the habitability of Jupiter’s moons.

Upon arrival at Jupiter, Juice will focus on both the gas giant and its moons. The SWI will study the composition of Jupiter’s atmosphere, revealing details about the planet’s weather patterns and chemical makeup. Simultaneously, MAJIS will examine the icy surfaces of the moons, looking for clues about their geologic history and current conditions. These analyses will help scientists determine whether the moons have the ingredients necessary to support life.

Searching for Signs of Extraterrestrial Life

Juice’s mission is part of a broader scientific effort to search for extraterrestrial life within our solar system. Jupiter’s icy moons, with their hidden oceans, are considered some of the most promising locations to find life beyond Earth. The discovery of life on these moons—whether in microbial form or something more complex—would revolutionize our understanding of the universe and the conditions necessary for life to arise.

The successful detection of life-signaling molecules on Earth gives scientists confidence that Juice will be able to detect similar signs on Jupiter’s moons. As ESA noted, “The instruments are fully operational and capable of detecting telltale signatures of life, at least where it is abundant.” This validation means that the scientific community can look forward to exciting results as Juice moves closer to its target.

The Process Behind Mars’ Water Loss

The study reveals that water molecules in the Martian atmosphere are broken down by sunlight into their atomic components—hydrogen and oxygen. Of particular interest to researchers is hydrogen and its heavier isotope, deuterium. Deuterium is hydrogen with an extra neutron in its nucleus, making it heavier and less likely to escape into space compared to regular hydrogen. Over time, as Mars lost hydrogen at a faster rate than deuterium, the ratio between these two isotopes increased, providing scientists with a method to estimate how much water Mars used to have during its wetter periods.

"There are only two places water can go. It can freeze into the ground, or the water molecule can break into atoms, and the atoms can escape from the top of the atmosphere into space," explained John Clarke, lead researcher from Boston University’s Center for Space Physics. By using data from Hubble and MAVEN, Clarke and his team were able to measure the current escape rate of hydrogen atoms and extrapolate that information to understand the long-term history of water on Mars. This process helps scientists trace the fate of Mars' water over billions of years and offers new clues about the Red Planet’s ancient climate.

Hubble and MAVEN Reveal a Dynamic Martian Atmosphere

One of the most striking discoveries made by the Hubble and MAVEN missions is that the Martian atmosphere is much more dynamic than previously thought. Mars’ elliptical orbit brings it closer to the Sun during certain parts of its year, causing rapid changes in the atmosphere. When Mars is near its closest point to the Sun, known as perihelion, the planet’s atmosphere heats up, and water molecules rise through it more quickly. These molecules are broken apart at higher altitudes, releasing hydrogen and oxygen atoms into space at a faster rate.

"Scientists have found that Mars has an annual cycle that is much more dynamic than people expected 10 or 15 years ago," Clarke explained. "The whole atmosphere is very turbulent, heating up and cooling down on short timescales, even down to hours." The discovery that atmospheric conditions on Mars can change so rapidly, expanding and contracting based on the planet’s position relative to the Sun, adds a new layer of complexity to understanding how Mars has lost its water over time.

Hubble’s far-ultraviolet imaging, combined with MAVEN’s atmospheric data, has allowed scientists to map these changes in unprecedented detail. When Mars is farthest from the Sun, or at aphelion, hydrogen escape slows down, but at perihelion, the rate increases significantly. These findings overturn earlier assumptions that hydrogen atoms slowly diffused upwards through the atmosphere. Instead, the water molecules are pushed to higher altitudes rapidly when Mars is closest to the Sun, accelerating the process of water loss.

The Role of Solar Wind and Chemical Reactions

The study also revealed that additional energy sources are required to explain how hydrogen and deuterium atoms reach escape velocity. At the temperatures found in Mars’ upper atmosphere, only a small fraction of hydrogen atoms would have the necessary speed to escape Mars' gravity. To account for this, scientists identified two key factors that provide the extra "kick" needed for these atoms to escape: solar wind collisions and sunlight-driven chemical reactions in the upper atmosphere.

Solar wind particles, which continuously stream from the Sun, collide with atmospheric particles, transferring energy and boosting the speed of hydrogen atoms. At the same time, solar radiation triggers chemical reactions that produce super-thermal hydrogen atoms—atoms moving fast enough to escape Mars’ gravitational pull. These mechanisms have contributed to the accelerated loss of Mars’ atmosphere, particularly during periods of high solar activity. The interaction between the solar wind and Mars' atmosphere further emphasizes how the planet's distance from the Sun affects its ability to retain water.

Understanding Mars as a Proxy for Distant Exoplanets

Beyond solving the mystery of Mars’ water loss, these findings have broader implications for understanding the evolution of planets both inside and outside our solar system. Mars, Earth, and Venus all reside within or near the habitable zone of the Sun, the region where conditions could potentially support liquid water. However, the present-day environments of these planets are drastically different. While Earth remains rich in water, Venus has undergone a runaway greenhouse effect, and Mars has lost much of its atmosphere and water over time.

"Studying the history of water on Mars is fundamental not only to understanding planets in our own solar system but also the evolution of Earth-size planets around other stars," Clarke pointed out. Astronomers are finding more exoplanets within the habitable zones of distant stars, but it is difficult to study them in detail. Mars serves as a valuable proxy for these distant worlds, offering clues about how planets lose their atmospheres and water over billions of years.

The collaboration between Hubble and MAVEN provided the first holistic view of hydrogen atoms escaping Mars, helping scientists piece together the planet’s water history and offering a framework for studying other rocky planets in similar orbits around distant stars.

Looking Forward: The Future of Mars Exploration

As the MAVEN mission prepares to celebrate its 10th year at Mars in September 2024, scientists continue to gather data that will enhance our understanding of the Red Planet. The mission, which is managed by NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center, has played a crucial role in explaining how the Martian atmosphere behaves and how water escapes into space. Meanwhile, the Hubble Space Telescope, which has been in operation for more than three decades, continues to provide key observations that help solve long-standing questions about the universe, including planetary evolution and atmospheric processes.

Together, these missions are providing a clearer picture of Mars’ past and present, offering insights into the planet's potential to host life billions of years ago. With further research, scientists hope to unlock more secrets about the planet's geological history and its capacity to support life. As John Clarke summarized, "To understand how much water there was and what happened to it, we need to understand how the atoms escape into space." This ongoing research will undoubtedly shape future Mars exploration missions and enhance our understanding of the solar system’s most enigmatic planet.

Hypothesized over 60 years ago, this field is as fundamental to our planet as gravity and the magnetic field, influencing critical atmospheric processes.

Using data from NASA’s Endurance mission, which launched a suborbital rocket from the Arctic, researchers were able to detect and measure this elusive field, revealing its significant impact on Earth’s ionosphere and atmospheric escape.

The role of the ambipolar electric field in Earth's atmosphere

The ambipolar electric field plays a crucial role in the behavior of charged particles in Earth's upper atmosphere, particularly in the ionosphere—a region where solar radiation ionizes gases, creating a mix of free electrons and ions. This field is generated as a result of the interactions between these positively charged ions and negatively charged electrons. The ambipolar field acts in both directions: it pulls electrons downward while lifting ions upward, preventing the separation of charges and maintaining the integrity of the ionosphere.

This electric field is not just a static feature; it actively contributes to the phenomenon known as the polar wind—a steady outflow of charged particles from Earth’s atmosphere into space, particularly over the polar regions. Since the late 1960s, spacecraft flying over the poles have detected this outflow, which theorists had linked to an unseen electric field. However, due to its weak nature, measuring this field directly had long been beyond the capabilities of existing technology. The polar wind itself is a fascinating process: particles that are relatively cold and unheated somehow achieve supersonic speeds as they escape Earth’s gravitational pull. The discovery and measurement of the ambipolar electric field provide the missing piece in understanding how these particles are accelerated to such high velocities.

Measuring the ambipolar field: the Endurance mission

The Endurance mission was specifically designed to detect the ambipolar electric field and quantify its effects. On May 11, 2022, a suborbital rocket carrying highly sensitive instruments was launched from Svalbard, a Norwegian archipelago located close to the North Pole. The location was chosen for its proximity to the polar wind region, where the field’s effects are most pronounced. The rocket’s instruments were tailored to detect minute changes in electric potential across a range of altitudes, from 150 miles (250 kilometers) to 477 miles (768 kilometers) above Earth.

During its 19-minute flight, the rocket gathered data that revealed a change in electric potential of only 0.55 volts—a value that might seem insignificant, but is actually crucial in explaining the dynamics of the polar wind. Glyn Collinson, the lead researcher from NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center, explained that this seemingly tiny amount of voltage is “about as strong as a watch battery,” yet it is sufficient to generate the forces necessary to lift charged particles, such as hydrogen ions, out of the atmosphere and into space.

The data collected also showed that the ambipolar field has a significant impact on the ionosphere’s structure. For instance, hydrogen ions, which are the most abundant particles in the polar wind, experience a force from this field that is more than ten times stronger than gravity, propelling them into space at supersonic speeds. The field also affects heavier particles like oxygen ions, effectively reducing their weight and allowing them to reach higher altitudes than they would under the influence of gravity alone. This upward lift increases the “scale height” of the ionosphere by 271%, meaning that the ionosphere remains denser at greater heights than previously understood.

Implications for Earth’s atmospheric evolution and planetary science

The discovery of the ambipolar electric field has profound implications for our understanding of Earth’s atmospheric processes and its evolution over time. This field, now confirmed as a fundamental aspect of Earth’s environment, likely plays a crucial role in shaping the long-term behavior of the atmosphere. By influencing the rate at which particles escape into space, the ambipolar field may have contributed to the gradual loss of atmospheric components over geological timescales, affecting everything from climate to the sustainability of life.

Furthermore, this discovery is not just significant for Earth; it opens new avenues for studying other planets with atmospheres. Similar electric fields are expected to exist on planets like Venus and Mars, where atmospheric escape also occurs. By understanding how the ambipolar field operates on Earth, scientists can develop better models to predict and study atmospheric behavior on other planets. This knowledge is particularly important in the search for habitable environments beyond Earth, as the presence and strength of such fields could influence a planet’s ability to retain an atmosphere capable of supporting life.

Collinson emphasized the broader impact of this discovery by stating, “Any planet with an atmosphere should have an ambipolar field. Now that we’ve finally measured it, we can begin learning how it’s shaped our planet as well as others over time.” This insight could help researchers understand why planets like Mars have lost much of their atmosphere, while Earth has retained a thick, life-sustaining envelope of gases.

Discovered earlier this year, this long-period comet from the distant Oort Cloud is on a journey that has the potential to light up our skies, captivating both skywatchers and scientists alike. This potential sighting would be a rare opportunity to witness a comet that visits the inner solar system only once every 80,000 years, making its appearance in our skies a once-in-a-lifetime event.

The journey of Comet Tsuchinshan-ATLAS

Comet Tsuchinshan-ATLAS is making a remarkable trip through the inner solar system, a journey it undertakes once every 80,000 years. Originating from the Oort Cloud, a vast, distant region surrounding our solar system and home to millions of icy bodies, the comet has been the subject of intense interest since its discovery in early 2023. The comet was first identified by astronomers at China’s Purple Mountain Observatory and was later confirmed by the Asteroid Terrestrial Impact Last Alert System (ATLAS) in South Africa.

As the comet travels toward the sun, it faces the intense solar heat, which poses a significant threat to its survival. Many comets, especially those making their first approach toward the sun, are fragile and prone to disintegration as they encounter the sun's intense radiation and gravitational forces. This vulnerability led to earlier predictions by astronomer Zdenek Sekanina, who suggested that Tsuchinshan-ATLAS might not survive its closest approach to the sun, known as perihelion, expected on September 27. If the nucleus of the comet were to crumble, the spectacle would be diminished, or the comet might disappear entirely before it becomes visible from Earth.

However, recent observations have brought a renewed wave of optimism. NASA’s STEREO-A spacecraft recently captured images of the comet, confirming that it remains intact and is even brightening as it continues its journey toward the sun. This discovery has reignited hopes that Tsuchinshan-ATLAS could become a spectacular sight in our skies, especially as it nears its closest approach to the sun and begins to display the characteristic coma and tail that make comets so visually stunning.

What to expect from this celestial visitor

The potential visibility of Tsuchinshan-ATLAS in the coming weeks has generated significant excitement among both professional astronomers and amateur skywatchers. As of now, the comet is shining at magnitude 7, which is just beyond the threshold for unaided-eye visibility. However, as it draws closer to the sun, its brightness is expected to increase dramatically. Qicheng Zhang, an astronomer at Lowell Observatory, has predicted that the comet could reach a peak brightness of magnitude -3 by October 9. If this prediction holds true, Tsuchinshan-ATLAS could become nearly as bright as Venus, making it visible even in daylight under optimal conditions.

As the comet approaches, it is expected to undergo significant changes that will enhance its visibility. Comets typically develop two distinct tails as they near the sun. One tail is composed of ionized gas, which appears bluish and points directly away from the sun, driven by the solar wind. The other tail, made of dust, is typically broader and more diffuse, curving gently as it follows the comet’s orbit. This dust tail can reflect sunlight, creating a bright streak across the sky. Tsuchinshan-ATLAS is expected to develop both of these tails, with the dust tail potentially spanning an impressive 20 degrees across the sky, equivalent to the width of 40 full moons. This tail, shaped by the solar wind and the comet’s own motion, could create a dramatic visual display that is easily visible with the naked eye.

The orientation of the comet as it becomes visible from the northern hemisphere means that its dust tail will likely reflect sunlight directly toward Earth, a phenomenon known as "forward scattering." This effect could make the comet appear even brighter, especially during twilight hours when the sky is darker but the comet is still illuminated by the sun. Observers using binoculars or telescopes may be able to see intricate details within the comet’s tail and nucleus, adding to the spectacle.

While comets are notoriously unpredictable, and there are no guarantees that Tsuchinshan-ATLAS will reach its full potential as a naked-eye object, the signs are promising. The fact that the comet’s nucleus has remained intact and continues to brighten as it approaches the sun is a good indication that it may offer a spectacular show. However, as with all celestial events, much depends on local viewing conditions, including weather and light pollution.

The significance of Comet Tsuchinshan-ATLAS

Comets like Tsuchinshan-ATLAS are more than just beautiful objects to observe in the night sky; they are also scientific treasures. As remnants from the early solar system, comets carry within them the building blocks of planets and the raw materials that have shaped our cosmic neighborhood. Studying comets provides astronomers with valuable insights into the conditions and processes that existed billions of years ago, offering a glimpse into the formative years of our solar system.

The potential visibility of Tsuchinshan-ATLAS offers both a rare opportunity for scientific observation and a chance for the public to engage with the wonders of the universe. Whether viewed through a telescope, binoculars, or with the naked eye, this comet's appearance could be one of the most memorable astronomical events in recent years. For scientists, observing the comet’s behavior as it approaches the sun will provide data on how comets interact with solar radiation, how their tails form and evolve, and what happens when they reach perihelion. These observations could lead to new discoveries about the composition of comets and the dynamics of their orbits.

As the comet approaches perihelion, skywatchers around the world will be watching the skies in anticipation. The comet’s journey through the inner solar system serves as a reminder of the dynamic and ever-changing nature of our universe. Whether or not Tsuchinshan-ATLAS lives up to its potential, its passage offers a unique opportunity to witness the raw power of cosmic forces and to connect with the ancient origins of our solar system.

Preparing for a celestial event

The potential appearance of Comet Tsuchinshan-ATLAS is generating excitement not only among professional astronomers but also among amateur skywatchers and the general public. As we approach late September and early October, skywatchers are advised to keep an eye on the eastern horizon before dawn and the western horizon after sunset for a chance to glimpse this celestial visitor. Should the comet reach its predicted brightness, it could provide one of the most memorable astronomical events of the year, drawing the attention of people around the world.

For those with access to telescopes or binoculars, the weeks leading up to perihelion will be an excellent time to start tracking the comet as it brightens. Even after perihelion, as the comet moves away from the sun, it may remain visible for several weeks, offering multiple opportunities for observation. Whether you are an experienced astronomer or simply a curious observer, the potential sighting of Tsuchinshan-ATLAS is a reminder of the beauty and wonder of the cosmos, a spectacle that connects us to the vastness of space and the mysteries that lie within it.

Venus: Earth's Evil Twin?

For centuries, Venus has been regarded as a barren and inhospitable land, a hellish landscape of scorching temperatures and crushing atmospheric pressures. But new data suggests that this may not always have been the case.

“Venus is often called Earth's twin due to its similar size,” says Hiroki Karyu, a researcher at Tohoku University and one of the study's scientists. But unlike Earth, Venus has evolved into a world so hostile that it's almost unfathomable.

Surface temperatures can melt lead, and the pressure at ground level is 90 times that of Earth. Liquid water, the bedrock of life as we know it, is virtually non-existent. Or is it?

The Mysterious Deuterium Spike

In nature, deuterium, and hydrogen are isotopes of the same element, except that deuterium is heavier due to the presence of one neutron. In the atmosphere of Venus, researchers have found that the amount of HDO, in which one hydrogen atom of water is replaced with deuterium, is 120 times more prevalent than the normal H2O found on Earth. No, this is not some funny prank; it’s a possible revolutionary change in the near future.

This unusual depletion of HDO in the atmosphere of Venus is mainly due to the action of solar wind, which breaks the bonds of water vapour molecules present in high altitudes of the atmosphere. The light hydrogen atoms are more readily able to diffuse out into space, whereas deuterium, the heavier hydrogen isotope, remains trapped within. But we have only scratched the surface. Or rather, the crust of molten rock.

Could Venus Have Been Wet and Habitable?

Here is where it gets really crazy. If Earth and Venus had about the same amount of water and other volatile compounds in the beginning of their formation, like experts suggest. Why then is… the mystery of unwarrantable violence under awful pressure so evident in terrorists of today’s Venus so different? This spike in deuterium might just provide the critical answer to that puzzle.

New data from the Solar Occultation in the Infrared (SOIR) instrument on the Venus Express space probe reveals that water molecules, particularly those containing deuterium, increase with altitude in Venus' atmosphere. At higher altitudes, the concentration of deuterium-rich water skyrockets, becoming more than 1,500 times greater than what is found in Earth's oceans.

Venus’ atmosphere could mean that it can even support water bodies, and therefore water as a gas may have been abundant in the atmosphere. If this suggestion is proved right, it is suggested that Venus may have had an environment moderating enough to hold liquid water on the ground. Think about it: Venus, a possible source, and center for life, existing today in a dry roasting furnace.

But the plot thickens. The sulphuric acid aerosol sprays in the atmosphere of Venus, the study also suggests, can be responsible for such deuterium enrichment. Stratocumulus clouds are formed when such a point is reached, which is a layer where cooler temperatures make it possible for deuterium-rich water to condense.

When particles such as these get raised, they evaporate and accentuate more deuterium into the atmosphere, leading to a cycle that has changed Venus into the planet we are accustomed to.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bGoJtke13Hk

This complex maneuver, which is a critical component of the spacecraft’s long journey, allowed JUICE to gain the necessary speed and trajectory to continue its path toward the giant planet.

The mission, which seeks to study Jupiter’s moons—including Ganymede, Europa, and Callisto—has garnered significant attention for its potential to uncover new insights into these icy worlds.

A Complex Double Flyby: Moon and Earth Working in Tandem

The double flyby, which took place on August 19, 2024, was a crucial moment in the JUICE mission. The spacecraft first passed by the Moon, using its gravity to accelerate and adjust its course.

Shortly after, JUICE made its closest approach to Earth, completing the double flyby maneuver that will allow it to continue its journey toward Venus.

These images are just getting better and better 😍 Raw images from #ESAJuice are being sent down to Earth as we speak, we'll publish the processed versions as soon as we can.
In the meantime, enjoy our live broadcast of the very first images that came down 👇 https://t.co/pVtpc0e5kl pic.twitter.com/y4VHSOgDAr

— ESA's Juice mission (@ESA_JUICE) August 19, 2024

This kind of double gravity assist, using both the Moon and Earth in such close succession, had never been attempted before in space exploration.

The maneuver required precise calculations and timing, as the spacecraft needed to harness the gravitational pull of both celestial bodies to gain the speed necessary to reach its next destination.

This flyby sets JUICE on a trajectory to encounter Venus in August 2025, where it will perform another gravity assist to continue its long journey to Jupiter.

Capturing the Moon: Stunning Images From the Flyby

During its close approach to the Moon, JUICE captured a series of remarkable images that provide a fresh perspective on Earth's natural satellite.

The images were taken using the Juice Monitoring Camera (JMC), which, although primarily designed to monitor the spacecraft’s components, offered a striking view of the Moon in real color.

These images showcased the varied landscape of the Moon, including craters and surface features that highlight the stark beauty of the lunar surface.

The photos were not taken with the spacecraft’s primary science instruments, which will be used later in the mission to study Jupiter’s moons in greater detail.

However, the images have already sparked excitement among the mission’s team and the broader public. They offer a tantalizing glimpse of what JUICE is capable of as it prepares for its main mission phase.

What Lies Ahead for JUICE: The Road to Jupiter

Following its successful double flyby, JUICE will now make its way toward Venus, where it will arrive in August 2025. This gravitational assist is part of a carefully plotted course that will take the spacecraft on a long journey through the solar system, ultimately bringing it to Jupiter by 2031.

Along the way, JUICE will pass by Earth twice more in 2026, using additional gravity assists to fine-tune its trajectory and gain the speed necessary to reach the outer solar system.

Once JUICE arrives at Jupiter, the spacecraft will begin its primary mission: to study the gas giant and its moons. JUICE will focus especially on Ganymede, the largest moon in the solar system, which is thought to have an ocean beneath its icy surface.

By orbiting Ganymede and closely studying its magnetic field, surface, and internal structure, JUICE aims to uncover new information about the moon’s potential habitability and its geological history.

In addition to Ganymede, JUICE will also explore Europa and Callisto—two other icy moons of Jupiter that are believed to have subsurface oceans. Scientists hope that JUICE’s observations will provide critical data that could shed light on the possibility of life existing in these distant worlds.

A Mission With Groundbreaking Potential

The JUICE mission represents a major leap forward in our exploration of the outer solar system. With each successful maneuver, the spacecraft brings humanity closer to answering key questions about the icy moons of Jupiter and the role they may play in the broader story of planetary evolution and habitability.

By studying these moons in unprecedented detail, JUICE could provide insights into not only the history of our solar system but also the conditions that might support life beyond Earth.

The successful completion of JUICE’s double flyby marks a major milestone on its journey, and with its sights now set on Venus and Jupiter, the mission promises to deliver groundbreaking discoveries in the years to come.

This remarkable maneuver will help the spacecraft pick up the speed it needs to continue its eight-year journey to Jupiter, where it will study the planet’s icy moons, including Ganymede, which is believed to harbor a subsurface ocean.

A Daring Double Flyby: First of Its Kind

The Jupiter Icy Moons Explorer (JUICE), launched in April 2023, is set to execute the first-ever dual Earth-Moon flyby. This complicated maneuver will involve using both the Moon’s and Earth’s gravity to slingshot the spacecraft deeper into space. This flyby marks a “double-world first,” as it is the first time a spacecraft will use a twin flyby to adjust its trajectory towards Jupiter.

According to ESA, the mission has been meticulously planned over the last 20 years and is a feat of precision engineering.

The spacecraft will pass within 700 kilometers of the Moon’s surface on August 19th, followed by a close pass within 6,807 kilometers of Earth on August 20th.

The daring feat is likened to “passing through a very narrow corridor, very, very quickly,” as JUICE navigates its way through space using gravity for course correction.

"The margin for error is minimal," said Ignacio Tanco, Spacecraft Operations Manager for JUICE. "Even a small mistake could send the spacecraft off course."

Gravity Assist: Essential for Deep Space Travel

The gravity assist maneuver allows JUICE to gain the energy required to continue its journey toward Jupiter without needing vast amounts of onboard propellant. “Without this technique, JUICE would have required an impossible 60,000 kg of propellant,” explained Nicolas Altobelli, JUICE Mission Manager.

The spacecraft’s trajectory will bend through space during the flyby, effectively “braking” it and redirecting it toward Venus for another gravity assist in 2025.

After the Venus flyby, JUICE will return for two more Earth flybys, one in 2026 and another in 2029, which will give it the final push needed to reach Jupiter by 2031.

Observing JUICE's Flyby

Observers in well-placed regions will have a rare opportunity to catch a glimpse of JUICE as it passes near Earth and the Moon. If skies are clear, skywatchers in Australia and southeast Asia will have the best chance of spotting the spacecraft as it approaches Earth in the pre-dawn sky on August 20th.

Though harder to see, other regions such as Europe and North America will also be able to view JUICE from farther out in space. Astronomers recommend using tracking maps from sources like Heavens-Above and ephemerides from JPL Horizons to pinpoint JUICE’s precise position in the sky.

JUICE is an impressive 27 meters across from solar panel to solar panel, and if you’re lucky, you may catch a specular glint of sunlight reflecting off the spacecraft’s panels as it passes Earth, potentially making it visible to the naked eye.

Testing Instruments En Route to Jupiter

As JUICE makes its way through this crucial flyby, ESA’s mission controllers will use the opportunity to test several of the spacecraft’s scientific instruments. One instrument, in particular, the Radar for Icy Moon Exploration (RIME), will undergo important testing during the lunar flyby. RIME has been experiencing interference from other spacecraft instruments, and mission controllers will use this pass to troubleshoot the issue.

During its closest pass by the Moon, RIME will have a limited eight-minute window to conduct vital observations of the lunar surface. ESA hopes that this brief window will provide enough data to develop an algorithm that will help mitigate the noise issue, ensuring that RIME is fully operational when JUICE reaches Jupiter’s moons.

JUICE’s Mission: Unveiling the Mysteries of Jupiter's Icy Moons

JUICE's primary mission is to explore Jupiter's icy moons, including Europa, Callisto, and Ganymede. These moons are of particular interest to scientists because of their potential to harbor subsurface oceans beneath their icy crusts. Ganymede, the largest moon in the solar system, is of particular interest due to its magnetic field and potential habitability.

Once JUICE arrives at Jupiter in 2031, it will begin its long-term study of these moons, searching for signs of water, ice, and possible life. The spacecraft’s suite of 10 scientific instruments, including RIME, will help map the surface and study the interior of these mysterious worlds.

Scientists have identified that Venus' extensive plateaus, called tesserae, might have formed through processes similar to those that created Earth's earliest continents billions of years ago.

This groundbreaking discovery has significant implications for our understanding of planetary evolution and the potential for tectonic activity on other planets.

Discovering Venus' Tectonic Past

Led by Associate Professor Fabio Capitanio from the Monash University School of Earth, Atmosphere and Environment, the international study was conducted in collaboration with NASA and published in Nature Geoscience.

The research team used high-performance computer simulations and data from NASA's Magellan spacecraft to model the formation of Ishtar Terra, Venus' largest plateau. Ishtar Terra, with its vast expanse and towering mountains, provided an ideal subject for studying Venusian geology.

The computer models revealed that Ishtar Terra and other tesserae may have formed through processes akin to the creation of Earth's cratons, which are the ancient cores of our continents. These cratons were formed billions of years ago through tectonic processes that involved the thinning and melting of the Earth's surface, allowing molten rock to rise and create elevated regions.

Similarly, the models suggested that Venus' surface could thin and melt due to its unique geological conditions, causing molten rock to rise and form extensive plateaus. Over time, the mantle's resistance would lead to cooling and the creation of high plains surrounded by folded mountain belts.

"We did not expect Venus, with its scorching 460 C surface temperature and lack of plate tectonics, to possess such complex geological features," said Associate Professor Capitanio. This discovery challenges existing theories about planetary evolution and indicates that Venus may have experienced tectonic activity similar to early Earth.

The Significance of Ishtar Terra

Ishtar Terra, a vast plateau on Venus, is surrounded by mountain belts with elevations comparable to the Himalayas. This region's crust is thick, akin to Earth's cratons. On Earth, such features typically result from tectonic plate interactions, where plates collide and create mountains and other geological formations. The discovery that Venus' Ishtar Terra may have formed through similar processes suggests that Venus might have experienced tectonic activity in its past.

The study's computer models indicated that the planet's surface could thin and melt due to low strength, causing molten rock to rise and form elevated areas. As the mantle's resistance increased over time, the surface would cool and solidify, creating high plains surrounded by folded belts, much like Earth's early continents. This process mirrors the formation of Earth's cratons, which hold crucial clues about the emergence of topography, atmosphere, and even life.

"This finding provides a fascinating new perspective on Venus and its potential links to early Earth," Capitanio stated. The research indicates that the dynamics of Venus' past may have been more similar to Earth's than previously thought. Understanding the formation of these "continents" on Venus could shed light on the evolution of rocky planets, including Earth.

Implications for Planetary Evolution

Understanding the formation of these geological features on Venus could provide significant insights into the evolution of rocky planets. Earth's cratons hold crucial clues about the emergence of topography, atmosphere, and even life. By studying similar features on Venus, scientists hope to unlock secrets of Earth's early history. This comparative planetology approach helps scientists develop a broader understanding of how planetary bodies evolve and the conditions that lead to tectonic activity.

The implications of this research extend beyond Venus, offering new perspectives on the geological history of other rocky planets in our solar system and beyond. The study suggests that planets without active plate tectonics today, like Venus, could still have experienced significant tectonic activity in their past. This understanding can influence the search for life on other planets, as tectonic activity is often linked to the conditions necessary for life.

"Our research has paved the way for future missions to Venus, such as DAVINCI, VERITAS, and EnVision," Capitanio concluded.

These missions aim to provide further insights into Venus' geological history and its connection to Earth, potentially revealing more about the processes that shaped our own planet. The research underscores the importance of continued exploration and study of Venus, as it holds valuable clues to the early history of our solar system.

This milestone not only underscores the rapid advancements in astronomical technologies but also deepens our understanding of the universe's vastness and the potential for life on other worlds.

The discovery of these exoplanets, scattered across the galaxy, offers a tantalizing glimpse into the diversity and complexity of planetary systems beyond our own.

A Brief History of Exoplanet Discovery

The journey of exoplanet discovery began in earnest in 1992, a landmark year when astronomers identified planets orbiting the pulsar PSR B1257+12. Named Poltergeist and Phobetor, these planets were the first confirmed exoplanets, revolutionizing our view of the cosmos and opening a new field of study in astronomy.

The significance of this discovery cannot be overstated; it confirmed the existence of planets outside our solar system, shifting many theoretical musings into the realm of observable science. Since that breakthrough, the pace of discovery has accelerated, driven by advances in detection methods and technology.

By March 2022, the count had exceeded 5,000, each new discovery adding a layer of complexity and intrigue to our understanding of planetary formation and the conditions that might allow life to flourish.

Recent Discoveries: Six New Exoplanets

The latest additions to the exoplanet catalog include six particularly fascinating worlds, each with unique characteristics:

HD 36384 b

This is a super-Jupiter, a type of gas giant significantly larger than Jupiter, orbiting an M giant star. The discovery was made using the radial velocity method, which detects variations in the velocity of the star due to the gravitational pull of the planet. HD 36384 b's host star is nearly 40 times the size of our Sun, making this a particularly interesting system for studying the dynamics of massive stars and their planetary companions.

TOI-198 b

Situated on the inner edge of its star's habitable zone, TOI-198 b is a potentially rocky planet. The habitable zone, often referred to as the "Goldilocks zone," is the region around a star where conditions may be just right for liquid water to exist—a crucial factor for life as we know it. The planet was detected using the transit method, which involves measuring the dimming of a star's light as the planet passes in front of it.

TOI-2095 b and TOI-2095 c

Both of these planets are classified as large, hot super-Earths, orbiting an M dwarf star. M dwarfs are smaller and cooler than our Sun, yet they are the most common type of star in the Milky Way galaxy. The discovery of TOI-2095 b and c, which are likely more akin to Venus than Earth in terms of their atmospheric conditions, provides valuable data on the diversity of planetary types that can exist around these common stars.

TOI-4860 b

Known as a hot Jupiter, TOI-4860 b is notable for its extremely short orbital period of just 1.52 days. Hot Jupiters are gas giants that orbit very close to their parent stars, often resulting in extreme atmospheric temperatures. The discovery of such planets challenges traditional models of planet formation and migration, suggesting that these planets may form further out in their systems before migrating inwards.

MWC 758 c

This giant protoplanet orbits a very young star with a protoplanetary disk, discovered through direct imaging. Direct imaging captures actual pictures of exoplanets, a method that is particularly useful for studying young planetary systems. MWC 758 c is notable for its role in shaping the star's disk, creating spiral arms in the process. This discovery provides a snapshot into the early stages of planet formation, offering clues about how planets and their systems evolve.

Techniques in Exoplanet Detection

Detecting exoplanets involves overcoming significant challenges due to their small size and faint brightness compared to their host stars. To identify these distant worlds, astronomers use a variety of sophisticated techniques that each reveal different aspects of an exoplanet's characteristics. These methods include the radial velocity method, transit photometry, direct imaging, gravitational microlensing, and astrometry.

Each technique not only aids in the discovery of exoplanets but also provides valuable data on their physical properties and atmospheres, enhancing our understanding of planetary systems beyond our own. Let's explore these methods in more detail.

Radial Velocity Method: Also known as the Doppler method, this technique measures the tiny wobbles in a star's motion caused by the gravitational pull of an orbiting planet. These wobbles affect the star's light spectrum, shifting it slightly towards the red or blue ends, depending on the star's movement towards or away from us. This method has been instrumental in discovering many of the first known exoplanets and remains a cornerstone of planetary detection.

Transit Method: The most prolific method to date, the transit method involves observing the light curve of a star for periodic dips in brightness, which occur when a planet transits, or passes in front of, its host star. This method not only helps in detecting the presence of a planet but also provides data on the planet's size and atmospheric composition, if the planet has a detectable atmosphere.

Direct Imaging: This technique involves capturing images of planets by blocking out the star's light using a device called a coronagraph. While challenging due to the brightness of stars compared to their planets, direct imaging is valuable for studying young, hot planets and for making detailed observations of planetary atmospheres and weather patterns.

Gravitational Microlensing: This method takes advantage of the gravitational field of a planet acting as a lens to magnify the light from a more distant star behind it. This technique is particularly useful for finding planets that are otherwise difficult to detect, such as those that are far from their stars or those that are in binary systems.

Astrometry: This oldest method of detecting planets measures the precise movements of a star on the sky's plane, looking for small shifts caused by the gravitational influence of an orbiting planet. While challenging and less commonly used than other methods, astrometry can be particularly useful for finding planets around very bright stars where other methods may not work as well.

Researchers have reported the detection of phosphine and tentative signs of ammonia in the planet's atmosphere, which could indicate the presence of microbial life.

These discoveries add to the intrigue surrounding Venus, one of the most hostile environments in the solar system, with surface temperatures around 450°C and an atmosphere composed mostly of carbon dioxide and sulfuric acid. Despite these extreme conditions, the detection of these gases suggests that life might find a way to survive in the more temperate cloud layers of Venus.

Phosphine Detection Raises Questions About Life on Venus

The detection of phosphine, a gas often associated with biological activity on Earth, was initially reported in 2020 but faced controversy due to inconsistent observations. Dr. Dave Clements from Imperial College London and his team, using the James Clerk Maxwell Telescope in Hawaii, have strengthened the evidence for phosphine by tracking its signature over time.

They found that phosphine levels fluctuate with Venus's day-night cycle, suggesting that sunlight may destroy the gas. "Our findings suggest that when the atmosphere is bathed in sunlight the phosphine is destroyed," Clements said. "All that we can say is that phosphine is there. We don’t know what’s producing it. It may be chemistry that we don’t understand. Or possibly life."

Phosphine is considered a biosignature gas because, on Earth, it is produced by microbes in oxygen-starved environments. Its detection on rocky planets like Venus is therefore intriguing, as other potential sources, such as volcanic activity, are much less efficient. The new findings show phosphine deeper in Venus's atmosphere, around 55 kilometers above the surface, consistent with previous data from NASA's Pioneer Venus mission in 1978. Dr. Clements noted, "We haven't properly sorted out the atmospheric modeling for this yet, but there are some broad lines at the level that suggest parts per million level of phosphine at around 55, 56, 57-kilometer altitude."

Ammonia Detection Adds to Venus Mysteries

In addition to phosphine, preliminary observations from the Green Bank Telescope in the United States indicate the presence of ammonia, another potential biosignature gas. Ammonia on Earth is primarily produced through biological processes or industrial activities, and its detection on Venus is puzzling.

Professor Jane Greaves from Cardiff University, who presented these findings, noted, "Even if we confirmed both of these [findings], it is not evidence that we have found these magic microbes and they’re living there today," but she acknowledged the significance of these preliminary results.

Ammonia's presence could be particularly interesting because it might be used by hypothetical microbes to neutralize the acidic environment of Venus's clouds. "If there are any microbes in the Venus clouds, they might make certain gases that you wouldn't expect. And ammonia came up as they could use it as a way to neutralize the acid," Greaves explained. She added that the ammonia was detected slightly above the region thought to be warm enough for life, suggesting it could either be unrelated to life or produced by something living that drifts upward where it's easier to detect.

Scientific and Exploration Prospects

These findings have reignited interest in Venus and its potential to harbor life. Dr. Robert Massey, deputy executive director at the Royal Astronomical Society, emphasized the preliminary nature of the results but acknowledged their excitement, saying, "These are very exciting findings but it must be stressed that the results are only preliminary and more work is needed to learn more about the presence of these two potential biomarkers in Venus’s clouds." This cautious optimism reflects the scientific community's need for further verification and robust analysis before drawing definitive conclusions.

The debate over these biosignature gases highlights the need for more data and robust scientific analysis. "If they really confirm phosphine and ammonia robustly it raises the chances of biological origin," said Professor Nikku Madhusudhan from the University of Cambridge. The confirmation of these findings could lead to new missions and experiments designed to further investigate the atmospheric chemistry of Venus. Madhusudhan noted that proof of a biosignature requires both the robustness of the signal and a convincing tie to life, both of which remain open questions for Venus.

Future Missions to Venus

Upcoming missions by NASA and the European Space Agency (ESA) aim to explore Venus in greater detail. NASA's DAVINCI mission, scheduled to launch at the end of the decade, will study Venus's atmosphere and look for signs of phosphine as it descends through the clouds. ESA's EnVision mission will focus on understanding the relationship between the planet's atmosphere and geological activity, seeking to determine how Venus's environment diverged so drastically from Earth's.

Meanwhile, the private Rocket Lab Probe, part of the Morning Star Missions, is expected to launch in January 2025. It aims to enter Venus's atmosphere and detect these intriguing molecules. Additionally, the team hopes to convince ESA's JUICE mission to make observations during its flyby of Venus next year on its way to Jupiter. These missions will provide critical data that could either support or refute the presence of these biosignature gases, helping to clarify the potential for life on Venus.

This finding provides valuable insights into how the ingredients for life might have ended up on our own planet billions of years ago.

Discovery of Organic Material on Mars

A decade ago, a robotic rover on Mars unearthed a crucial piece of evidence by discovering organic material in the sediment of ancient lakebeds. This discovery indicated that Mars has a rich presence of carbon chemistry, raising intriguing questions about the origins of these organic molecules. While the presence of organic material does not necessarily imply the existence of alien life, it opens up fascinating possibilities about the processes that could produce such molecules.

Planetary scientist Yuichiro Ueno of the Tokyo Institute of Technology led the team that made this discovery. The researchers found that carbon dioxide in Mars's atmosphere reacts with ultraviolet sunlight, forming a mist of carbon molecules that descend onto the planet's surface. "Such carbon-based complex molecules are the prerequisite of life, the building blocks of life, one might say," explained chemist Matthew Johnson from the University of Copenhagen. He further clarified that these organic molecules form through atmospheric photochemical reactions without any biological intervention.

The Role of Photolysis

Photolysis, a process where molecules are broken apart by light, plays a significant role in the formation of organic components on Mars. This process produces carbon monoxide and oxygen atoms from carbon dioxide and works faster on lighter isotopes. Consequently, molecules containing carbon-12 deplete faster than those with carbon-13, leaving an 'excess' of carbon-13 dioxide behind. The notion that photolysis contributes to the organic chemistry found on Mars has been supported by simulations and subsequent investigations.

Johnson and his colleagues published a paper in 2013 hypothesizing that photolysis could explain the presence of organic molecules on Mars. The recent findings provide hard evidence that supports this hypothesis. The atmospheric carbon-13 enrichment was first identified a few years ago when researchers analyzed a Martian meteorite that landed in Antarctica. "The smoking gun here is that the ratio of carbon isotopes in it exactly matches our predictions in the quantum chemical simulations," Johnson said.

Confirmation from Martian Meteorite

A critical piece of evidence was found in data obtained by the Curiosity rover in the Gale crater. The rover's samples of carbonate minerals showed a carbon-13 depletion that perfectly mirrored the carbon-13 enrichment found in the Martian meteorite.

This finding confirmed that the organic material on Mars was formed from carbon monoxide produced by photolysis. "There is no other way to explain both the carbon-13 depletion in the organic material and the enrichment in the Martian meteorite, both relative to the composition of volcanic CO2 emitted on Mars," Johnson explained.

The confirmation from the Curiosity rover provides strong evidence that photolysis is responsible for the formation of organic material on Mars. This discovery also hints at a possible origin for organic material on Earth. Billions of years ago, Venus, Earth, and Mars all had very similar atmospheres, suggesting that the same processes likely occurred on our home planet.

Implications for Earth's Origins

The implications of this discovery extend beyond Mars. The study suggests that the organic material found on Mars could provide clues about the origins of life on Earth. During the early stages of the solar system, Earth, Venus, and Mars had similar atmospheric conditions. The processes that led to the formation of organic molecules on Mars could have also occurred on Earth, laying the groundwork for the emergence of life.

"We have not yet found this 'smoking gun' material here on Earth to prove that the process took place. Perhaps because Earth's surface is much more alive, geologically and literally, and therefore constantly changing," Johnson said. "But it is a big step that we have now found it on Mars, from a time when the two planets were very similar."

This remarkable feat underscores the probe's robust design and the meticulous planning involved in its journey to unlock the secrets of the sun's outer atmosphere.

The Parker Solar Probe, launched in 2018, continues to push the boundaries of solar exploration, providing invaluable data that will enhance our understanding of the sun and its impact on the solar system.

Repeated Records and Mission Achievements

On June 30, 2024, the Parker Solar Probe (PSP) came within 4.51 million miles (7.26 million kilometers) of the solar surface, matching its previous distance record. During this perihelion, the spacecraft moved at a staggering speed of 394,736 miles per hour (635,266 kilometers per hour).

This close approach marks the midpoint of the probe’s 20th solar encounter, which began on June 25 and will continue through July 5. The mission team at the Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory, where the spacecraft was designed and built, confirmed that the spacecraft is in good health, with all systems functioning normally following the close approach. This achievement not only highlights the probe's resilience but also the effectiveness of the mission’s design and execution.

The Parker Solar Probe’s repeated records are a testament to the mission’s success in navigating the harsh conditions near the sun. Each close approach, or perihelion, allows the probe to collect critical data about the sun’s corona, the outermost part of its atmosphere.

This region is of particular interest to scientists because it holds the key to understanding solar winds and space weather phenomena that can have profound effects on Earth. By coming closer to the sun than any previous spacecraft, the Parker Solar Probe provides unprecedented insights into the mechanisms driving these phenomena.

Parker Solar Probe's Mission Objectives

Launched in 2018, the Parker Solar Probe is designed to study the upper layer of the solar atmosphere, known as the corona. By understanding the processes occurring within the corona, scientists aim to gain insights into solar winds and space weather phenomena that can impact Earth.

The corona is a region of the sun where temperatures soar to millions of degrees, significantly hotter than the surface below. This puzzling temperature inversion is one of the mysteries the Parker Solar Probe seeks to unravel.

To achieve its mission, the probe performs a series of gravitational maneuvers near Venus, gradually reducing its distance to the sun with each orbit. These maneuvers are crucial for shaping the probe’s trajectory, allowing it to “dive” into the corona and collect valuable data.

The probe’s sophisticated instruments are designed to withstand the extreme temperatures and radiation conditions found near the sun, enabling it to capture high-resolution images and detailed measurements of the corona’s magnetic fields, plasma, and energetic particles.

"PSP was launched in 2018. It is designed to study the upper layer of the solar atmosphere, called the corona, and the processes taking place in it," noted Universe Magazine. By capturing and analyzing this data, scientists hope to better understand the sun’s behavior and its influence on the solar system.

The findings from the Parker Solar Probe are expected to contribute to improved space weather forecasting, which is vital for protecting satellites, power grids, and communication systems on Earth.

Future Orbits and Final Maneuvers

The Parker Solar Probe is set to make another close approach to the sun on September 30, 2024, at the same distance and speed. The mission’s critical phase will occur on November 6, 2024, when the probe performs its final flyby of Venus.

This maneuver will position the probe for its closest planned approach to the sun, bringing it within just 3.8 million miles (6.2 million kilometers) of the solar surface on December 24, 2024. During this approach, the probe is expected to reach speeds of approximately 430,000 miles per hour (700,000 kilometers per hour), making it the fastest human-made object ever.

This series of maneuvers and close approaches will enable the Parker Solar Probe to gather unprecedented data on solar activity and the sun’s outer atmosphere. These findings are expected to enhance our understanding of the sun’s behavior and its influence on the solar system.

The data collected during these final approaches will be critical for validating and refining existing models of the sun’s corona and its interactions with the heliosphere, the vast bubble of space influenced by the sun’s magnetic field and solar wind.

The successful completion of these close approaches demonstrates the probe’s resilience and the effectiveness of its design and mission planning. As the probe continues to gather data, scientists anticipate groundbreaking discoveries that will further our knowledge of the sun and its interactions with the space environment.

The Parker Solar Probe’s mission represents a significant leap forward in solar science, offering a deeper understanding of the fundamental processes that govern our star and its impact on the solar system.

While Earth has only one moon, many other planets in our solar system, such as Jupiter and Saturn, have dozens or even hundreds of moons.

Understanding why some planets have multiple moons involves examining the gravitational forces at play and the specific characteristics of these celestial bodies.

The Role of Gravitational Forces

The number of moons a planet can have is largely determined by its gravitational pull, which is influenced by the planet's size and mass. Larger planets with stronger gravitational forces can attract and retain more moons. This gravitational influence is quantified by the Hill sphere, which defines the region around a planet where its gravity is dominant over the gravitational pull of the sun.

For instance, Jupiter, the largest planet in our solar system, has a Hill sphere radius that allows it to maintain a strong gravitational hold on its 95 moons. Saturn surpasses Jupiter in terms of sheer numbers, boasting an impressive 146 moons. In contrast, smaller planets like Mercury and Venus have much smaller Hill spheres.

Their proximity to the sun means that any potential moons would likely be captured by the sun's stronger gravitational pull, preventing these planets from retaining multiple moons.

Distance From the Sun and Planetary Formation

The distance of a planet from the sun also plays a crucial role in the number of moons it can have. Planets that are farther from the sun, such as Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune, are less influenced by the sun's gravitational force, allowing them to capture and retain more moons. These outer planets formed in regions of the solar system where there was an abundance of icy and rocky debris, providing the material needed for moon formation.

The Earth, on the other hand, is relatively close to the sun and has a smaller Hill sphere compared to the gas giants. This limited its ability to capture additional moons. Furthermore, Earth's single moon likely formed from a giant impact event, where a Mars-sized body collided with the early Earth, resulting in debris that coalesced to form the moon.

Dynamics of Moon Formation

Moons can form through several processes, including the coalescence of debris around a planet, the capture of passing celestial objects, or the result of significant impacts. The specific dynamics of these processes depend on the planet's location in the solar system and its gravitational characteristics.

For example, the moons of Jupiter and Saturn are believed to have formed from the primordial disk of gas and dust that surrounded these planets during their formation. This disk provided the material needed for moons to coalesce. Additionally, some of their moons may have been captured asteroids or comets that were pulled into orbit by the planet's gravity.

Implications for Planetary Science

Understanding why some planets have multiple moons not only sheds light on the history and formation of our solar system but also informs our study of exoplanets in other star systems. By studying the gravitational dynamics and moon formation processes around different types of planets, scientists can gain insights into the conditions that lead to the formation of planetary systems.

As we continue to explore our solar system and beyond, the study of moons and their interactions with their parent planets remains a vital area of research. These natural satellites offer clues about the early conditions of planetary formation and the ongoing processes that shape celestial bodies.

In conclusion, the number of moons a planet can have is determined by a combination of gravitational forces, distance from the sun, and the specific dynamics of moon formation. By understanding these factors, scientists can unravel the mysteries of planetary systems and the complex interactions that govern their evolution.

Mission Background and Challenges

Launched on May 21, 2010, aboard an H2-A rocket, Akatsuki, also known as the Venus Climate Orbiter, was designed to study the atmospheric phenomena of Venus, including the search for lightning within its thick clouds and signs of active volcanism.

Despite a troubled start, where the spacecraft failed to enter Venus’s orbit due to a main engine malfunction, JAXA engineers successfully managed a second attempt, placing Akatsuki into orbit around Venus on December 7, 2015, after five years of orbiting the Sun. This achievement was a testament to the resilience and ingenuity of the mission team, who had to devise a novel method of orbital insertion using the spacecraft's smaller thrusters.

Since then, Akatsuki has provided valuable insights into Venus’s harsh atmospheric conditions. The spacecraft’s instruments have been instrumental in observing weather patterns, cloud dynamics, and surface characteristics, contributing significantly to our understanding of Venusian climatology.

The data collected by Akatsuki have helped scientists better understand the super-rotating atmosphere of Venus, where winds circulate the planet much faster than its rotation, a phenomenon that remains one of the most intriguing aspects of Venusian weather.

Current Situation of Japan's Spacecraft "Akatsuki"

The Institute of Space and Astronautical Science (ISAS) reported on X Wednesday, May 29, that they had "lost contact with Akatsuki after an operation in late April due to an extended period of low attitude stability control mode, and is currently making efforts to reestablish communication with the spacecraft."

[From the Akatsuki team](1/2)
ISAS has lost contact with Akatsuki after an operation in late April due to an extended period of low attitude stability control mode, and is currently making efforts to reestablish communication with the spacecraft.

— 「あかつき」チーム (@Akatsuki_JAXA) May 29, 2024

Efforts to re-establish contact have been ongoing, but so far, they have been unsuccessful. This situation is particularly challenging because precise orientation is crucial for Akatsuki to direct its communications antenna towards Earth, a requirement for sending and receiving data.

JAXA has indicated that the spacecraft had already exceeded its designed lifespan of 4.5 years, having operated for nearly 14 years since its launch. The agency is now deliberating on the next steps and how to address the spacecraft's operational challenges. "We are currently considering our future response.

We will announce our policy as soon as it has been decided," JAXA stated. The loss of contact is a significant blow, as Akatsuki was conducting extended missions to study atmospheric waves and the distribution of trace gases in Venus's atmosphere, which are key to understanding the planet’s climatic and geological history.

Scientific Contributions

Akatsuki has exceeded expectations by continuing its mission well beyond its initial timeline, entering an extended phase of operations in 2018. The spacecraft has provided unprecedented data on Venus's climate, including the detection of large-scale atmospheric waves and unusual cloud patterns.

These findings have enhanced our understanding of Venus’s meteorological processes and have been critical in comparing the planet’s climatic conditions to those of Earth. For example, Akatsuki's observations of the infrared emissions from the planet's night side have revealed dynamic atmospheric activities and variations in cloud cover, which are essential for constructing accurate models of Venus's climate.

The potential loss of Akatsuki leaves a significant gap in Venus exploration, as it is currently the only operational probe dedicated to studying our neighboring planet. Its suite of instruments, including cameras and spectrometers designed to capture detailed images and analyze the composition of Venus’s atmosphere, has provided scientists with a wealth of information that would be difficult to replicate with ground-based observations alone.

The data from Akatsuki have also shed light on the planet's mysterious 'pioneer anomaly,' a discrepancy in its gravitational field that may hint at underlying geophysical processes.

The planet’s surface is characterized by numerous volcanoes, lava fields, and channels carved by flowing lava. However, until recently, it was unclear whether these features indicated past or ongoing volcanic activity.

Groundbreaking analysis of archival radar data from NASA's Magellan mission has now provided direct evidence of recent volcanic eruptions on Venus, offering significant insights into its geological processes.

This discovery not only enhances our understanding of Venus but also has broader implications for planetary science and our comprehension of Earth's geological history.

Discoveries from Magellan Mission Reveal Active Volcanism

In a meticulous reexamination of radar images captured by NASA’s Magellan spacecraft between 1990 and 1992, scientists identified substantial changes in a volcanic vent located on Maat Mons, one of Venus’s largest volcanoes.

The vent exhibited significant alterations in shape and size over an eight-month period, indicating that a volcanic eruption likely occurred during this time.

This vent, which initially appeared almost perfectly circular and covered about 2.2 square kilometers, had doubled in size and changed shape by the later image, suggesting the presence of new lava flows. This evidence marks the first direct confirmation of active volcanism on Venus and aligns with previous studies that speculated about ongoing geological activity based on indirect evidence​.

Methodological Challenges and Techniques

Analyzing the three-decade-old radar data presented several challenges due to its low resolution and the different viewing angles of the images. Researchers had to employ advanced computer simulations to test various geological scenarios, such as landslides, to determine the cause of the observed changes.

These simulations were critical in distinguishing volcanic activity from other possible phenomena. The process involved creating models of the vent in different configurations and comparing them to the radar images to see which scenarios matched. This meticulous approach confirmed that volcanic activity was the most plausible explanation for the changes observed in the vent’s structure, thereby providing robust evidence of recent eruptions.

Implications for Understanding Venus's Geology

The discovery of active volcanism on Venus places the planet in a unique category alongside Earth and Io, a moon of Jupiter, as the only known bodies in our solar system with currently active magma volcanoes. This finding has significant implications for our understanding of Venus’s interior and its geological evolution.

Active volcanism suggests that Venus's interior is still dynamic, which could influence its surface features and atmospheric conditions. For instance, volcanic eruptions could release gases that contribute to Venus's dense cloud cover and high levels of sulfur dioxide, affecting its climate and atmospheric composition. Understanding these processes on Venus can provide insights into similar geological activities on Earth and other planetary bodies​.

Future Missions: VERITAS and EnVision

The recent findings have paved the way for future missions aimed at exploring Venus’s geological activity in unprecedented detail. NASA’s VERITAS mission, scheduled to launch by the end of the decade, will utilize advanced radar and infrared sensors to create high-resolution 3D maps of Venus’s surface and analyze its composition. This mission aims to resolve surface features down to 30 meters across, offering a significant improvement over the Magellan mission's data.

VERITAS will also measure the planet’s gravitational field to gain insights into its interior structure. Similarly, the European Space Agency’s EnVision mission will complement VERITAS by mapping significant portions of Venus’s surface with its own advanced radar and spectrometer. These missions are expected to provide comprehensive data that will enable scientists to study Venus’s geological processes with much greater precision.

Understanding volcanic activity on Venus not only enhances our knowledge of the planet itself but also provides valuable comparative data for studying Earth’s geological processes. Venus, often referred to as Earth’s twin due to its similar size and composition, presents a stark contrast with its harsh, uninhabitable environment. Insights gained from Venus could offer clues about the past and future of planetary environments, including Earth's own geological and atmospheric evolution.

This discovery raises exciting possibilities about the existence of life beyond our solar system. The characteristics of this planet suggest that it could potentially support life, making it a significant find in the ongoing search for extraterrestrial habitats.

Characteristics of the Potentially Habitable Exoplanet Gliese 12b

Gliese 12b is an exoplanet with a size and composition similar to Venus, but with a more moderate temperature. This "Exo-Venus" orbits within the habitable zone, where conditions might be suitable for liquid water to exist. Unlike Venus, which has a scorching surface due to its thick atmosphere, Gliese 12b's moderate temperature suggests it could potentially support life.

The planet's position in its star's habitable zone means it receives just the right amount of starlight to maintain liquid water, assuming a suitable atmosphere.

The exoplanet's surface conditions and atmospheric composition are crucial factors in determining its habitability. If Gliese 12b has a thick atmosphere like Venus, it could trap heat and create a runaway greenhouse effect. However, if its atmosphere is thinner or more similar to Earth's, it could maintain more temperate conditions, conducive to life.

Significance of the Discovery

The discovery of Gliese 12b is significant for several reasons:

1. Habitable Zone: Being in the habitable zone of its star increases the likelihood of conditions suitable for life.
2. Moderate Temperature: Unlike Venus, Gliese 12b's moderate temperature could allow for liquid water, a key ingredient for life.
3. Research Opportunities: This exoplanet provides a valuable target for future research and observation, helping astronomers understand more about planet formation and the potential for life beyond Earth.

Finding a planet in the habitable zone of its star is a rare and exciting event. It provides a unique opportunity to study an exoplanet that might have conditions similar to those on Earth. This discovery also adds to the growing list of potentially habitable exoplanets, which are prime targets for future missions and telescopic observations.

Methods of Discovery

Gliese 12b was discovered using the transit method, which involves detecting dips in a star's brightness as a planet passes in front of it. This method allows scientists to determine the planet's size and orbit. Additionally, radial velocity measurements, which track the star's wobble caused by the gravitational pull of the planet, provide information about the planet's mass.

These combined methods give a comprehensive picture of the planet's characteristics, including its size, mass, and orbital period. Advanced telescopes and instruments, such as those on the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST), will further study Gliese 12b's atmosphere and surface conditions.

Future Research

Further studies of Gliese 12b will focus on its atmosphere, surface conditions, and potential signs of life. Space telescopes like the JWST will play a crucial role in observing this exoplanet in more detail. Understanding its atmospheric composition and climate will provide insights into its habitability.

Future missions might involve direct imaging of the planet, which could reveal surface features and further details about its atmosphere. Spectroscopic analysis will be essential for detecting gases such as oxygen, methane, and carbon dioxide, which are potential biosignatures.

Potential for Life

The potential for life on Gliese 12b hinges on several factors, including the planet's atmospheric composition, surface temperature, and the presence of liquid water. If the planet has a stable climate and the right chemical ingredients, it could support microbial life or even more complex organisms.

The discovery of Gliese 12b also fuels the debate about the prevalence of life in the universe. If life can exist on a planet with conditions similar to those on Earth, it increases the likelihood that life could be common in the universe.

Comparative Planetology

Studying Gliese 12b in comparison with Venus and Earth will enhance our understanding of planetary climates and atmospheres. Venus, often considered Earth's twin due to its similar size and composition, has a vastly different climate. By comparing these planets, scientists can learn more about the factors that make a planet habitable or inhospitable.

This comparative approach will help refine models of planetary formation and evolution, providing insights into how different planetary systems develop. It will also aid in identifying which exoplanets are most likely to host life, guiding future explorations.

This comet, discovered by the Asteroid Terrestrial-impact Last Alert System (ATLAS) and observed by the Purple Mountain Observatory in China, could offer a spectacular celestial show, comparable to some of the most famous comets in history.

Discovery and Characteristics of the Comet

C/2023 A3 (Tsuchinshan–ATLAS) was first identified by ATLAS in South Africa on February 22, 2023. Initially mistaken for an asteroid, further observations confirmed it as a comet. The comet was first spotted far beyond the orbit of Jupiter, approximately 680 million miles from the Sun.

On September 27, 2024, Tsuchinshan–ATLAS will make its closest approach to the Sun, coming within 36 million miles, a distance comparable to Mercury’s orbit. Following this, it will pass closest to Earth on October 12, 2024, at a distance of 44 million miles.

Potential Visibility

If the predictions hold true, Tsuchinshan–ATLAS could brighten significantly, potentially reaching a magnitude comparable to Venus, making it easily visible to the naked eye. During mid-October, it could present a striking sight in the western evening sky, possibly displaying a prominent tail. This would provide a rare opportunity for both amateur and professional astronomers to observe a bright comet without the need for telescopes or binoculars.

Comparison to Previous Comets

The excitement surrounding Tsuchinshan–ATLAS stems from its potential to be much brighter and easier to see than recent comets. For instance, Comet C/2022 E3 (ZTF) and Comet 12P/Pons-Brooks were relatively faint and required ideal conditions to view. In contrast, Tsuchinshan–ATLAS could provide a more accessible spectacle. Comet C/2022 E3 (ZTF), also known as the "Great Green Comet," and Comet 12P/Pons-Brooks, known for its sudden flare-ups and horn-like gaseous appendages, drew significant attention but ultimately disappointed many casual observers due to their faint visibility.

Risks of Disappointment

Despite the optimistic projections, there are no guarantees that Tsuchinshan–ATLAS will live up to the hype. The comet has an orbital eccentricity suggesting it is a "first-timer" from the Oort Cloud, a distant region of icy bodies that surrounds the solar system. Comets from the Oort Cloud often have volatile materials that can cause temporary brightness surges far from the Sun but may fade as they get closer. Many such comets have historically underperformed, losing brightness as they near the inner solar system. This phenomenon is similar to a marathon runner "hitting the wall," where initial speed is not maintained throughout the journey.

Factors Influencing Brightness

A critical factor that could enhance Tsuchinshan–ATLAS's brightness is the phenomenon of forward scattering of sunlight. This occurs when the comet is almost directly between the Sun and Earth, causing dust particles to scatter sunlight forward, potentially increasing brightness dramatically. This effect has made past comets like Comet Skjellerup–Maristany and Comet McNaught unexpectedly brilliant.

Comet Skjellerup–Maristany (C/1927 X1) became very bright in December 1927 due to forward scattering of light, allowing it to be seen during daylight. Similarly, Comet McNaught (C/2006 P1), also known as the Great Comet of 2007, was the brightest comet in over 40 years and was easily visible to the naked eye in the Southern Hemisphere. These examples provide hope that Tsuchinshan–ATLAS might also achieve remarkable brightness, especially around October 8, 2024, when it will be positioned favorably for forward scattering.

Observing Opportunities

While those in the Northern Hemisphere might not have the best viewing opportunities until mid-October, observers in the Southern Hemisphere, particularly in locations like Australia, New Zealand, and South America, will be able to monitor the comet’s progress throughout the summer. Reports from these regions will provide valuable insights into the comet’s potential performance.

Historical Context of Comet Observations

Throughout history, comets have fascinated humanity, often seen as omens or portents. The predictable return of Halley's Comet, the dramatic appearance of the Great Comet of 1811, and the stunning display of Comet Hale-Bopp in 1997 have all left lasting impressions. Modern advancements in astronomy have allowed for more precise predictions and observations, making the potential appearance of Tsuchinshan–ATLAS an exciting event for both scientists and the general public.

A Milestone in Exoplanet Exploration

The detection of an atmosphere around 55 Cancri e by the JWST is a significant milestone in the field of astronomy. This exoplanet, located about 41 light-years away in the constellation of Cancer, is notably different from Earth due to its extreme conditions. The planet orbits very close to its star, resulting in surface temperatures high enough to maintain a magma ocean.

The floor is lava! 🔥

Webb may have detected atmospheric gasses around molten 55 Cancri e, 41 light years from Earth. It’s the best evidence to date for a rocky planet with an atmosphere outside our solar system! https://t.co/8pl9VAIS1M pic.twitter.com/BYmC3K5reC

— NASA Webb Telescope (@NASAWebb) May 8, 2024

Unraveling the Mysteries of 55 Cancri e

Scientists using JWST have observed gases such as monoxyde and dioxyde of carbon in the atmosphere of 55 Cancri e. These findings suggest that despite the scorching conditions, the exoplanet has a substantial atmosphere that can influence temperature distribution and provide insights into its geological and atmospheric dynamics.

Implications for the Study of Rocky Planets

The discovery provides vital clues about the evolution of rocky planets, including those in our own solar system like Earth, Venus, and Mars. Understanding the atmospheric conditions of 55 Cancri e can shed light on the historical and potentially habitable nature of planets that undergo extreme volcanic and atmospheric activity.

This breakthrough not only enhances our understanding of planetary formation and evolution but also boosts the potential for future studies to assess the habitability and atmospheric properties of similar exoplanets. As the JWST continues to explore the universe, its findings will likely revolutionize our knowledge of the cosmos and the diverse planetary systems it harbors.

A Mighty Electric Field

Simultaneously, an equally fascinating discovery was made by NASA researchers. Venus is enveloped by an electric field much more powerful than Earth's. This "big monster," as described by scientists, is a driving force that propels water out of Venus's atmosphere, preventing water molecules from forming seas or oceans. This revolutionizes our understanding of what might hinder or encourage the presence of life on other planets.

Implications for the Search for Extraterrestrial Life

These revelations are not just important for satisfying our curiosity about our planetary neighbor. They also carry profound implications for the search for extraterrestrial life. By understanding the mechanisms that retain or expel water from a planet, scientists can better identify areas where life, as we know it, could potentially exist.

These discoveries are game-changers in our quest to understand the universe and our place within it. Once again, science shows us that every answer brings new questions, and every planet in the solar system has its own secrets to reveal.

Unravelling Venus: Insights into the Mystery of Its Desert Transformation

Planetary scientists at the University of Colorado Boulder used computer models to shed light on Venus' water cycle and determine why it became so dry.

According to computer simulations, Venus loses nearly twice as much water each day as previously assumed due to “dissociative recombination,” which causes hydrogen atoms in the planet's atmosphere to fly into space.

The computer simulations that scientists utilised provide a better understanding of Venus as a massive chemistry laboratory. They focus on the many reactions that occur in the planet's spinning atmosphere.

According to the researchers, Venus's escaping water could be generated by an ion called HCO+, which is made up of one hydrogen atom, one carbon atom, and one oxygen atom and is found high in the planet's atmosphere.

Cangi, the study's co-lead author, believes the findings shed new light on why Venus, which originally looked nearly identical to Earth, is now practically unrecognisable.

“We’re trying to figure out what little changes occurred on each planet to drive them into these vastly different states.”

“Venus wasn’t always such a desert.”

What's the Role of HCO+ in Venus' Water Loss?

Scientists believe that billions of years ago, during Venus' creation, the planet received an equal amount of water as Earth. But something went wrong. Venus' atmosphere was packed with thick clouds of carbon dioxide, resulting in the most extreme greenhouse effect in our solar system.

Consequently, surface temperatures rose to a blistering 900 °F. Venus' water evaporated, transforming into steam and escaping into space.

However, ancient evaporation is required to understand the real reasons behind Venus' drought or how it continually leaks water out into space.

Michael Chaffin, co-lead author of the report and a research scientist at LASP, stated: “As an analogy, say I dumped out the water in my water bottle. There would still be a few droplets left. On Venus, however, almost all of those remaining drops also disappeared. The culprit, according to the new work, is elusive HCO+.”

When water and carbon dioxide react in the upper atmospheres of planets, HCO+ is generated. According to a previous study, the molecule may be accountable for Mars losing a significant amount of water.

So here's how things work on Venus: HCO+ is constantly generated in the atmosphere, however the individual ions do not persist long. This means that electrons in the atmosphere collide with these ions, leading them to split in two. What comes next is that Hydrogen atoms speed away, and some are even released into space, leaving Venus devoid of one of the essential components for water.

In the most recent study, scientists performed calculations and determined that the sole approach to explain Venus' dry state is if the planet has significantly more HCO+ in its atmosphere than previously assumed. But here's when things become interesting: no one has observed HCO+ near Venus. Why? As stated by Chaffin and Cangi, we never have the required tools to search for it.

“One of the surprising conclusions of this work is that HCO+ should be among the most abundant ions in the Venus atmosphere,” Chaffin declared.

Today’s stories include NASA’s Webb Uncovers Dense Cosmic Knot in The Early Universe to JWST spots smallest galaxy outside our local universe to The Infinite Possibilities in a Tiny Smudge From Outer Space, and much more.

What Is Space?–Imagine the fabric of space-time peeled back layer by layer, reports Thomas Lin for Quanta. “The fundamental nature of space-time remains shrouded in mystery: Where does its structure come from? What do space-time and gravity look like in the subatomic quantum realm?”

Signatures of alien technology could be how humanity first finds extraterrestrial life, reports Macy Huston at Penn State for The Conversation.

Is Early Earth a Model for Emerging Life on Alien Planets? asks The Daily Galaxy. ““The Archean Eon stands out for being so incredibly distant, and incredibly distinct, from modern Earth,” University of Washington astrobiologist, Tyler Robinson, told The Daily Galaxy about the eon when life on Earth likely emerged. “The conditions on this near-alien version of Earth are so unique that the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) should be able to distinguish Archean-like features from signatures more synonymous with modern Earth, Mars, or Venus. 

NASA’s Webb Uncovers Dense Cosmic Knot in The Early Universe–Astronomers looking into the early universe have made a surprising discovery using NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope: a cluster of massive galaxies in the process of forming around an extremely red quasar. The result will expand our understanding of how galaxy clusters in the early universe came together and formed the cosmic web we see today.

JWST spots smallest galaxy outside our local universe–The James Webb Space Telescope has glimpsed the smallest galaxy outside our local universe – and it is a thousand times less massive than the Milky Way, reports New Scientist.

Evil doppelgängers, alternate timelines and infinite possibilities: the physics of the multiverse explained, reports Robert Lea for BBC Science Focus. “The word ‘universe’ once described everything that exists. But as our horizons have expanded, many scientists have begun to consider what’s beyond our own cosmos, and whether there may be many other universes lurking tantalizingly out of sight.”

Like the Borg of Star Trek, these ‘aliens’ assimilate DNA from other microbes, reports UC Berkeley. “In an alien world only a meter or two below our feet , researchers have now found large DNA molecules that aren’t quite viruses, which are DNA or RNA wrapped in proteins, but that seem to have infected archaea and acquired along the way a slew of genes from their archaeal hosts.”

The Infinite Possibilities in a Tiny Smudge From Outer Space–Astronomers have captured a poignant view of another planetary system in the making, reports Marina Koren for The Atlantic.

Why Scientists’ Latest Dark Matter and Dark Energy Calculations Are a Big Deal–We may now have the sharpest-ever measurements of the dark side of our universe. Here’s what that means for science, reports CNET.

A Monster Black Hole Has Been Discovered Nearby Silently Minding Its Business, reports Matt Williams for Universe Today.

Have Scientists Found A ‘Mirror World’ Parallel Universe That Explains Everything? The Truth Behind The Headlines, reports Jamie Carter for Forbes.

Juno Delivers Stunning New Views of Great Red Spot –Scientists and the public are dazzled by images from the spacecraft’s close encounter with Jupiter’s largest—and the solar system’s most famous—storm, reports Lee Billings for Scientific American. “Snapped earlier this week by NASA’s basketball court–size solar-powered Juno spacecraft, the new images from just 9,000 kilometers above Jupiter reveal never-before-seen details of the Great Red Spot and its turbulent surroundings that raise just as many questions as they answer.”

The Brightest Gamma-Ray Burst Ever Recorded Rattled Earth’s Atmosphere–The death of a massive star far across the universe affected lightning on our planet and could teach us about the Milky Way, reports Phil Plait for Scientific American.

Jupiter’s Ocean Moon Europa Is Ready for Its Close-up–Fresh data from the Juno probe’s flyby of Europa could help scientists learn whether this icy moon of Jupiter is habitable—or even inhabited, reports Daniel Leonard for Scientific American.

Seeking answers, planetary scientists plot a return to Uranus reports PNAS. “istant and obscure, the giant planets Uranus and Neptune lurk in the dark far from the Sun. Four decades ago they received one fleeting visitor from Earth, Voyager 2. No other spacecraft has ventured there since. -They are the least explored planets in our solar system,” says Heidi Hammel, a planetary scientist at the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy in Washington, DC. 

Experiments Spell Doom for Decades-Old Explanation of Quantum Weirdness–Physical-collapse theories have long offered a natural solution to the central mystery of the quantum world. But a series of increasingly precise experiments are making them untenable, reports Phillip Ball for Quanta.

‘Marshmallow’ world defies expectations for planets orbiting red dwarf stars, reports Robert Lea for Space.com. “Astronomers have discovered a gas giant planet with the density of a marshmallow orbiting a cool red dwarf star located 580 light-years from Earth. The Jupiter-like exoplanet is the lowest-density world ever observed orbiting a red dwarf.”

Exoplanet Ratio Detection Map. “We propose a new statistical method for direct imaging of exoplanets based on a likelihood ratio detection map, which assumes that the noise after the background subtraction step obeys a Laplacian distribution. We compare the method with two detection approaches based on signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) map after performing the background subtraction by the widely used Annular Principal Component Analysis (AnnPCA).”

Why military forces see the moon as a new strategic priority--The US Space Force is already taking steps to protect future bases on the moon. Could this lead to other powers like China escalating their own military activities up there too? asks New Scientist.

Curated by The Daily Galaxy Editorial Staff

Your free daily fix of  stories of space and science –a random journey from Planet Earth through the Cosmos– that has the capacity to provide clues to our existence and add a much needed cosmic perspective in our Anthropocene epoch.

Yes, Sign Me Up for “The Galaxy Report” Newsletter

Read about The Daily Galaxy editorial team here

Today’s stories include What does Earth look like from across the Universe to Carlo Rovelli: “Science is More Than Equations,” and much more.

Artemis: Nasa ready to launch new era of Moon exploration, reports BBC –SLS is the most powerful vehicle ever developed by Nasa, and will be the foundation of its Artemis project which aims to put people back on the lunar surface after a 50-year absence. The moon mission will lay groundwork for flights to Mars in the 2040s. The rocket is timed to go up from the Kennedy Space Centre at 08:33 local time (12:33 GMT; 13:33 BST) on Monday.

The Drake equation for alien intelligence is more important than ever, reports David Rothery for Space.com–“Whatever reasonable values you feed into the equation, it is hard to avoid the conclusion that we shouldn’t be alone in the galaxy.”

What does Earth look like from across the Universe?–From here on Earth, looking farther away in space means looking farther back in time. So what are distant Earth-watchers seeing right now? asks Big Think.

Artificial intelligence reduces a 100,000-equation quantum physics problem to only four equations, reports Phys.org –“”We start with this huge object of all these coupled-together differential equations; then we’re using machine learning to turn it into something so small you can count it on your fingers,” says study lead author Domenico Di Sante, a visiting research fellow at the Flatiron Institute’s Center for Computational Quantum Physics (CCQ) in New York City and an assistant professor at the University of Bologna.”

Science is More Than Equations: The big idea: why relationships are the key to existence –From subatomic particles to human beings, interaction is what shapes reality, writes Carlo Rovelli for The Guardian. “A century after its birth, something remains deeply puzzling about quantum theory. Unlike its illustrious predecessor, Newton’s classical mechanics, it does not tell us how physical systems behave.”

NASA Is About to Crash Into an Asteroid to Save Future Earth. Here’s How to Watch.–The DART mission has been flying to its target since launching last year. On Monday night, it will connect, reports the New York Times.  “DART is set to collide with Dimorphos, a small asteroid that is the moon of a larger space rock, Didymos. While these two near-Earth objects pose no immediate threat to our world, NASA launched DART last year to test a technique that could one day be used for planetary defense.

Jupiter will be its brightest in 59 years Monday. Here’s how to see it for yourself--The giant planet can be seen from anywhere, including in light-polluted cities, reports The CBC.

The Ghosts of Antarctica Will Haunt the End of the World--As climate change threatens to upend the icy kingdom, we’re writing ghost stories in real time, reports CNET.

Target Venus not Mars for first crewed mission to another planet, experts say–Despite its ‘hellish’ environment, scientists argue there are good reasons to focus on ‘Earth’s sister’, reports The Guardian. “a group of experts are advocating that our other nearest neighbor should be the initial target for a crewed mission to another planet. There are notable downsides. Walking on the surface would be an unsurvivable experience, so astronauts would have to gaze down at the planet from the safety of their spacecraft in a flyby mission.

Climate Change Forces French Vineyards to Alter the Way They Make Wine –Growers change grape varieties and reshape the landscape to protect some of the world’s most valuable vineyards from warmer temperatures, reports the Wall Street Journal.

The ‘super-deep’ royal diamonds revealing Earth’s secrets, reports BBC Future. “The largest diamonds in the British Crown Jewels may be pieces of the ancient ocean floor, which have drifted down into the interior of our planet – then come back up again.”

How Stars and Plants Helped Create Earth’s Unique Continents–You might not expect that the arms of our galaxy and the emergence of plants could help form the continents, but new research suggest it might be possible, reports Discover magazine. “A new study published in Geology tried to get at what really helped get the continents started in the first place. Instead of looking at processes happening within the planet, they looked at how the solar system’s position in the galaxy might have influenced geologic processes on Earth.

Has a US intelligence office really just put a UFO on its logo? reports Creative Bloq–“UFO watchers are having a field day. The US National Intelligence Manager for Aviation (NIM-A) has – apparently – just revealed a new logo that appears to recognize what believers have been saying all along. 

Curated by The Daily Galaxy Editorial Staff

Read about The Daily Galaxy editorial team here

Not all stars are like the sun, a yellow class G star. M-Type stars like Trappist 1 comprise 70% of all stars in the Universe.  These cool, ancient objects glow a deep red from a high output of infrared radiation and exist 46-700 billion or more years, according to Mathew Anderson, author of Habitable Exoplanets: Red Dwarf Systems Like TRAPPIST-1.

“This is a whole sequence of planets that can give us insight into the evolution of planets, in particular around a star that’s very different from ours, with different light coming off of it,” said Andrew Lincowskiat the University of Washington. “It’s just a gold mine,” said Lincowski about 2018 research from a University of Washington-led team of astronomers that provided updated climate models for the seven planets around TRAPPIST-1.

The work could help astronomers more effectively study planets around stars unlike our sun, and better use the resources of the James Webb Space Telescope.

“We are modeling unfamiliar atmospheres, not just assuming that the things we see in the solar system will look the same way around another star,” said Lincowski, UW doctoral student and lead author of a paper published in the Astrophysical Journal. “We conducted this research to show what these different types of atmospheres could look like.”

Venus: Secrets of Our Strange Sister Planet

The team found, briefly put, that due to an extremely hot, bright early stellar phase, all seven of the star’s worlds may have evolved like Venus, with any early oceans they may have had evaporating and leaving dense, uninhabitable atmospheres. However, one planet, TRAPPIST-1 e, could be an Earthlike ocean world worth further study, as previous research also has indicated.

TRAPPIST-1, 39 light-years or about 235 trillion miles away, is about as small as a star can be and still be a star. A relatively cool “M dwarf” star — the most common type in the universe — it has about 9 percent the mass of the sun and about 12 percent its radius. TRAPPIST-1 has a radius only a little bigger than the planet Jupiter, though it is much greater in mass.

All seven of TRAPPIST-1’s planets are about the size of Earth and three of them — planets labeled e, f and g — are believed to be in its habitable zone, that swath of space around a star where a rocky planet could have liquid water on its surface, thus giving life a chance. TRAPPIST-1 d rides the inner edge of the habitable zone, while farther out, TRAPPIST-1 h, orbits just past that zone’s outer edge.

Previous papers have modeled TRAPPIST-1 worlds, Lincowski said, but he and this research team “tried to do the most rigorous physical modeling that we could in terms of radiation and chemistry — trying to get the physics and chemistry as right as possible.”

The team’s radiation and chemistry models create spectral, or wavelength, signatures for each possible atmospheric gas, enabling observers to better predict where to look for such gases in exoplanet atmospheres. Lincowski said when traces of gases are actually detected by the Webb telescope, or others, some day, “astronomers will use the observed bumps and wiggles in the spectra to infer which gases are present — and compare that to work like ours to say something about the planet’s composition, environment and perhaps its evolutionary history.”

He said people are used to thinking about the habitability of a planet around stars similar to the sun. “But M dwarf stars are very different, so you really have to think about the chemical effects on the atmosphere(s) and how that chemistry affects the climate.”

Combining terrestrial climate modeling with photochemistry models, the researchers simulated environmental states for each of TRAPPIST-1’s worlds. Their modeling indicates that:

TRAPPIST-1 b, the closest to the star, is a blazing world too hot even for clouds of sulfuric acid, as on Venus, to form.

Planets c and d receive slightly more energy from their star than Venus and Earth do from the sun and could be Venus-like, with a dense, uninhabitable atmosphere.

TRAPPIST-1 e is the most likely of the seven to host liquid water on a temperate surface, and would be an excellent choice for further study with habitability in mind.

The outer planets f, g and h could be Venus-like or could be frozen, depending on how much water formed on the planet during its evolution.

Life-Bearing Clouds of Venus? -Its Upper Atmosphere is the Most Earth-like Location in the Solar System

Lincowski said that in actuality, any or all of TRAPPIST-1’s planets could be Venus-like, with any water or oceans long burned away. He explained that when water evaporates from a planet’s surface, ultraviolet light from the star breaks apart the water molecules, releasing hydrogen, which is the lightest element and can escape a planet’s gravity. This could leave behind a lot of oxygen, which could remain in the atmosphere and irreversibly remove water from the planet. Such a planet may have a thick oxygen atmosphere — but not one generated by life, and different from anything yet observed.

“This may be possible if these planets had more water initially than Earth, Venus or Mars,” he said. “If planet TRAPPIST-1 e did not lose all of its water during this phase, today it could be a water world, completely covered by a global ocean. In this case, it could have a climate similar to Earth.”

Lincowski said this research was done more with an eye on climate evolution than to judge the planets’ habitability. He plans future research focusing more directly on modeling water planets and their chances for life.

Is There Life in the TRAPPIST-1 Star System? – “Twice as Old as Our Solar System”

“Before we knew of this planetary system, estimates for the detectability of atmospheres for Earth-sized planets were looking much more difficult,” said co-author Jacob Lustig-Yaeger, a UW astronomy doctoral student.

The star being so small, he said, will make the signatures of gases (like carbon dioxide) in the planet’s atmospheres more pronounced in telescope data.

“Our work informs the scientific community of what we might expect to see for the TRAPPIST-1 planets with the upcoming James Webb Space Telescope.”

Lincowski’s other UW co-author is Victoria Meadows, professor of astronomy and director of the UW’s Astrobiology Program. Meadows is also principal investigator for the NASA Astrobiology Institute’s Virtual Planetary Laboratory, based at the UW. All of the authors were affiliates of that research laboratory.

“The processes that shape the evolution of a terrestrial planet are critical to whether or not it can be habitable, as well as our ability to interpret possible signs of life,” Meadows said. “This paper suggests that we may soon be able to search for potentially detectable signs of these processes on alien worlds.”

TRAPPIST-1, in the Aquarius constellation, is named after the ground-based Transiting Planets and Planetesimals Small Telescope, the facility that first found evidence of planets around it in 2015.

Source: University of Washington

The Galaxy Report newsletter brings you twice-weekly news of space and science that has the capacity to provide clues to the mystery of our existence and add a much needed cosmic perspective in our current Anthropocene Epoch.

Yes, sign me up for my free subscription.

Recent Galaxy Reports:

Unmistakable Signal of Alien Life to What Happens if China Makes First Contact?

Clues to Alien Life to A Galaxy 100 x Size of Milky Way 

Cracks in Einstein’s Theory of Gravity to Colossal Shock Wave Bigger than the Milky Way 

Monster Comet Arriving from the Oort Cloud to Black Hole Apocalypse 

Enigmas of Stephen Hawking’s Blackboard to Why the Universe and Life Exist 

Einstein’s Critics to NASA Theologians Prepare for Alien Contact

Mind-Bending New Multiverse Theory to Dark-Matter Asteroids of the Milky Way 

Mysterious Expanding Regions of Dark Matter to Are Black Holes Holograms

Read about The Daily Galaxy editorial team here

Today’s stories include Quantum Theory of Consciousness Challenged to Is Life on Earth the ‘Standard Model’ for the Universe to The 50 Million-Year-Old Treasures of Fossil Lake, and much more. 

What makes the human brain different? Yale study reveals clues –“What makes the human brain distinct from that of all other animals — including even our closest primate relatives? In an analysis of cell types in the prefrontal cortex of four primate species, Yale researchers identified species-specific — particularly human-specific — features, they report Aug. 25 in the journal Science.”

Seven Million Years Ago, the Oldest Known Early Human Was Already Walking, reports The Smithsonian. Analysis of a femur fossil indicates that a key species could already move somewhat like us.

Extraterrestrial Life –Is Earth the ‘Standard Model’ for the Universe? asks The Daily Galaxy. “By the end of this century, says astrophysicist Martin Rees, we should be able to ask whether or not we live in a multiverse, and how much variety of the laws of physics its constituent ‘universes’ display. The answer to this question, says Rees, “will determine how we should interpret the ‘biofriendly’ universe in which we live (sharing it with any aliens with whom we might one day make contact).”

Unfathomable Abodes of Life? –Water Worlds of the Milky Way–“Before life appeared on land some 400 million years ago, all life on Earth including the mind evolved in the sea. Astronomers have recently conjectured that blue exoplanets with endless oceans may be orbiting many of the Milky Way’s one trillion stars,” reports The Daily Galaxy.

What Drives Galaxies? The Milky Way’s Black Hole May Be the Key--“What Drives Galaxies? The Milky Way’s Black Hole May Be the Key. Supermassive black holes have come to the fore as engines of galactic evolution, but new observations of the Milky Way and its central hole don’t yet hang together,” reports Quanta.

Quantum theory of consciousness put in doubt by underground experiment, reports Physics World. “A controversial theory put forward by physicist Roger Penrose and anesthesiologist Stuart Hameroff that posits consciousness to be a fundamentally quantum-mechanical phenomenon has been challenged by research looking at the role of gravity in the collapse of quantum wavefunctions.”

How quantum physicists are looking for life on exoplanets, reports Northeastern University. “News@Northeastern spoke to Gregory Fiete, a physics professor at Northeastern, about some of the broad applications of quantum research, from developing renewable energy sources and building more powerful computers, to advancing humanity’s quest to discover life beyond the solar system.”

The Plan to Look for Life on Venus—Without NASA--A private group of scientists and rocket engineers might be the first to find signs of extraterrestrial life on the second planet from the sun, reports The Daily Beast.

After Millennia of Agricultural Expansion, the World Has Passed ‘Peak Agricultural Land’, reports Dr. Hannah Ritchie for Singularity Hub–“Humans have been reshaping the planet’s land for millennia by clearing wildlands to grow crops and raise livestock. As a result, humans have cleared one-third of the world’s forests and two-thirds of wild grasslands since the end of the last ice age.”

The 50 Million-Year-Old Treasures of Fossil Lake –In a forbidding Wyoming desert, scientists and fortune hunters search for the surprisingly intact remains of horses and other creatures that lived long ago, reports The Smithsonian..

Drought Exposes Dinosaur Tracks in Texas--The 113-million-year-old footprints were largely made by the carnivorous Acrocanthosaurus, reports The Smithsonian. “A severe drought in Texas has revealed 113-million-year-old dinosaur tracks in Dinosaur Valley State Park. The prints are usually covered by the Paluxy River—the last time they were visible was in the year 2000, according to BBC News.” 

Doppelgängers Don’t Just Look Alike—They Also Share DNA–New research finds genetic and lifestyle similarities between unrelated pairs of “virtual twins”, reports the Smithsonian. People with very similar faces also share many of the same genes and lifestyle traits, according to a new paper published Tuesday in the journal Cell Reports.

Shape of human brain has barely changed in past 160,000 years –An analysis of fossils suggests changes in the shape of the braincase during human evolution were linked to alterations in the face, rather than changes in the brain itself, reports New Scientist.

Humanity Is ‘Woefully Unprepared’ for a Major Volcanic Eruption, reports Gizmodo. “When the Hunga Tonga-Hunga Ha’apai volcano erupted in Tonga on January 15, the result was devastation. The eruption literally blew up an island, caused mass flooding in the surrounding areas, coated whole communities in a thick layer of ash, and took out telecommunications for weeks. Yet in that eruption, we got lucky, according to a new commentary article .”

Scientists discovered a 5 million-year-old time capsule buried in Antarctica--It’s an ice core with bubbles containing remains of ancient Earth atmosphere, reports ZME Science.

When will China’s population peak? It depends who you ask--Data show the country is facing a demographic crisis, with an aging population and young couples having fewer children, reports Nature.

MIT professor wrongfully accused of spying for China helps make a major discovery –Gang Chen, who was cleared after a lengthy DOJ investigation, said he is stepping away from federally funded research because of anxieties around being racially profiled, reports NBC.

Reconstructing ice age diets reveals an unraveling web of life–“While about 6% of land mammals have gone extinct in that time, we estimate that more than 50% of mammal food web links have disappeared,” said ecologist Evan Fricke, lead author of the study. “And the mammals most likely to decline, both in the past and now, are key for mammal food web complexity,” reports Rice University.

Why Thinking Hard Wears You Out–Concentrating for long periods builds up chemicals that disrupt brain functioning, reports Scientific American.

Tiny Caribbean crustaceans and their bioluminescent mating displays are shining new light on evolution, reports Science. “No bigger than a grain of sand, ostracods abound in fresh and saltwater. “They are very cute but also sort of bizarre—like a cross between a crab and a tiny spaceship,” says Timothy Fallon, an evolutionary biochemist at the University of California (UC), San Diego.”

The Biggest Offshore Wind Farm in the World Will Be Fully Online This Month, reports Singularity Hub. “A massive offshore wind project has been underway off the coast of England for over four years. Construction of Hornsea One started in January 2018, and generated its first power a year and a half later. Meanwhile, construction of neighboring Hornsea Two got underway, with that site first coming online last December.”

Eye movements in REM sleep mimic gazes in the dream world, reports the University of California, San Francisco. “When our eyes move during REM sleep, we’re gazing at things in the dream world our brains have created, according to a new study by researchers at UC San Francisco. The findings shed light not only into how we dream, but also into how our imaginations work.”

Curated by The Daily Galaxy Editorial Staff

The Galaxy Report newsletter brings you twice-weekly news of space and science that has the capacity to provide clues to the mystery of our existence and add a much needed cosmic perspective in our current Anthropocene Epoch.

Yes, sign me up for my free subscription.

Recent Galaxy Reports:

Unmistakable Signal of Alien Life to What Happens if China Makes First Contact?

Clues to Alien Life to A Galaxy 100 x Size of Milky Way 

Cracks in Einstein’s Theory of Gravity to Colossal Shock Wave Bigger than the Milky Way 

Monster Comet Arriving from the Oort Cloud to Black Hole Apocalypse 

Enigmas of Stephen Hawking’s Blackboard to Why the Universe and Life Exist 

Einstein’s Critics to NASA Theologians Prepare for Alien Contact

Mind-Bending New Multiverse Theory to Dark-Matter Asteroids of the Milky Way 

Mysterious Expanding Regions of Dark Matter to Are Black Holes Holograms

Read about The Daily Galaxy editorial team here

Today’s stories include Ten Possible Alien Technosignatures to What Would Magnetic Monopoles Mean for our Universe? and much more.

NASA ‘going full force’ to gear up for UFO study, reports Mike Wall for space.com–“This is really important to us, and we’re placing a high priority on it, said Daniel Evans, assistant deputy associate administrator for research at NASA’s Science Mission Directorate. The study panel will consist of 15 to 17 people, Evans added. These folks will be “some of the world’s leading scientists, data practitioners, artificial intelligence practitioners, aerospace safety experts, all with a specific charge, which is to tell us how to apply the full focus of science and data to UAP,” he said.

The search for biosignatures is hard. Should we look for technosignatures instead? asks Big Think. Our quest to find life on other planets is currently tuned to biosignatures. But this search is far from straightforward, and there is always the risk of false positives. The best scenario we can hope for is to find a complex biosphere that produces multiple lines of evidence pointing to life. But what if we focused instead on technosignatures — evidence of technological activity from advanced civilizations?”

Planet of Apes Hypothesis: Would the ‘Human Evolutionary Niche’ Be Filled If We Go Extinct? asks The Daily Galaxy. “We are the only species of the billions of species that have existed on Earth that has shown an aptitude for radios and even we failed to build one during the first 99% of our 7 million year history, according to Australia National University’s Charles Lineweaver.”

We Might Already Speak the Same Language As ET–Alien communication could utilize quantum physics, so SETI needs a new way to listen, reports astrophysicist Caleb Scharf for Nautilus. –“We assume that information might be sailing past us in representations built using classical physics. But what if that’s just wrong?”

Ancient Stargazers Saw Betelgeuse Shine a Different Color –-“When Sima Qian, prefect grand scribe astrologer of China’s early Han dynasty, gazed up at the constellation of Orion a little more than 2,000 years ago, he didn’t see the brilliant crimson star on the hunter’s right shoulder that we know today as Betelgeuse.” Although Betelgeuse is currently a red giant star, astronomers millennia ago observed it as yellow, reports Scientific American.

Life-Bearing Clouds of Venus? -Its Upper Atmosphere is the Most Earth-like Location in the Solar System, reports The Daily Galaxy. “Venus is like Earth in so many ways,” explained the late physicist, Stephen Hawking. “A sort of kissing cousin. She’s almost the same size as Earth, a touch closer to the Sun. And, she has an atmosphere that could crush a submarine.”

We exist. What can that fact teach us about the Universe? –The anthropic principle has fascinating scientific uses, where the simple fact of our existence holds deep physical lessons. Don’t abuse it! reports Big Think. 

A Private Space Company Is Launching a Probe to Look for Alien Life on Venus –Rocket Lab plans to send a mission to Venus as early as May 2023, reports Vice Science.

The Secrets of Stars That Eat Their Planets--As scientists study thousands of planets around the galaxy, they are learning more about worlds that get swallowed up by their stars, reports  Becky Ferreira for New York Times Science. “The sun has nourished life on Earth, but it will not be so hospitable forever. Five billion years into the future, our solar system’s star will grow so immense that Mercury, Venus and, possibly, Earth will be swallowed whole.

What would magnetic monopoles mean for our Universe? –Magnetic monopoles began as a mere theoretical curiosity. They might hold the key to understanding so much more, reports Ethan Siegel for Big Think.

Read about The Daily Galaxy editorial team here

Today’s stories range from Microbial Dark Matter – Thousands of Unknown Bacterial Species Discovered in Hawaiian Lava Caves to Scientists Uncover the Largest Asteroid Crater on Earth under 100,000 years old to China Plans to Turn the Moon into an Outpost for Defending Us from Asteroids, and much more.

Ancient Microbial “Dark Matter” – Thousands of Unknown Bacterial Species Discovered in Hawaiian Lava Caves. This research investigates the variety and interactions within these microbial ecosystems, which illustrate how life may have existed on Mars and the early Earth in the past,” reports SciTechDaily.

China plans to turn the moon into an outpost for defending the Earth from asteroids, say scientists–Two optical telescopes would be built on the moon’s south and north poles to survey the sky for threats evading the ground-base early warning network. Test satellites could also help protect China’s national security by having the telescopes and sensors pointed towards the Earth, say researchers,” reported The South China Post.

Ancient Microbes May Help Us Find Alien Life Forms, reports Science. “Scientists have reconstructed what life was like for some of Earth’s earliest organisms by using light-capturing proteins in living microbes. These endeavors could help us recognize signs of alien life on other planets, whose atmospheres may more closely resemble our early, pre-oxygen planet.”

A new genetic analysis explains how penguins lost the ability to fly, headed south, and became excellent swimmers, reports Insider. “Penguins lost their ability to fly before the formation of the polar ice sheets, as getting off the ground took too much effort for birds that were becoming expert swimmers.”

In her short life, mathematician Emmy Noether changed the face of physics –Noether linked two important concepts in physics: conservation laws and symmetries, reports Science News. “It’s been a century since the July 23, 1918, unveiling of Noether’s famous theorem. Yet its importance persists today. ‘That theorem has been a guiding star to 20th and 21st century physics,’ says theoretical physicist Frank Wilczek of MIT.

NASA wants to turn satellites into alien hunters–Asked why the space agency is embarking on such a seemingly ‘fringe’ subject, it said one of its remits is to look for life outside Earth, reports The Telegraph. “Speaking to journalists in London this week, Col Pam Melroy, the deputy administrator of Nasa, said: “This team is going to be looking at questions like: ‘do we have sensors that can see things, you know, take another look at the evidence?’.

Scientists Contemplate Alien Contact (The Daily Galaxy Archive)

Consciousness isn’t just the brain: The body shapes your sense of self–“Electrical signals coming from your heart and other organs influence how you perceive the world, the decisions you take, your sense of who you are and consciousness itself,” reports New Scientist.

Scientists uncover the largest crater on Earth under 100,000 years old. The impact crater is the second discovered in China. “The Yilan crater measures about 1.15 miles (1.85 kilometers) across and likely formed about 46,000 to 53,000 years ago, based on radiocarbon dating of charcoal and organic lake sediments from the site, the NASA statement says. Researchers collected these sediment samples by extracting a drillcore from the center of the crater,” Forbes reported.

The Unsolved Mystery of the Earth Blobs. “In 2019, researchers peering into Earth’s interior found two continent-sized structures that upend our picture of the mantle. Some 2,000 kilometers beneath our feet, there are enormous masses of hot mantle material that have baffled scientists for the last 4 decades. What could their existence mean for us back on Earth’s surface?” asks Eos.

Reaching Closer to Earth’s Core, One Lava Scoop at a Time–A 2021 eruption in Iceland gave researchers rare and illuminating access to the mantle, one of the Earth’s layers, reports The New York Times. “on the first day of the eruption, a helicopter flew out to the site and scooped up a bit of lava. Some samples were distributed to labs, which, after testing, sent back unexpected results: The lava was full of crystals.” Here’s what they revealed.

50 years ago, the dinosaurs’ demise was still a mystery  –Excerpt from the July 22, 1972 issue of Science News. “Dinosaurs might have been endothermic, or warm-blooded…. The combination of large size, endothermy and naked skin may explain the extinction of dinosaurs. About 65 million years ago there was a sharp drop in temperature…. Dinosaurs, lacking skin insulation and too large to burrow underground … could not survive. 

A Tool for Fighting Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria Has Been Found Deep in the Desert-– “Scientists believe that organisms that live in tough environments could help combat the urgent and ever-growing threat of antibiotic-resistant bacteria, which are becoming increasingly deadly,” reports Wired.

The Unsolved Mystery Attack on Internet Cables in Paris--As new details about the scope of the sabotage emerge, the perpetrators—and the reason for their vandalism—remain unknown, reports Wired. “On April 27, an unknown individual or group deliberately cut crucial long-distance internet cables across multiple sites near Paris, plunging thousands of people into a connectivity blackout. The vandalism was one of the most significant internet infrastructure attacks in France’s history and highlights the vulnerability of key communications technologies.”

‘Universal language network’ identified in the brain, reports Nicoletta Lanese for Live Science.”Japanese, Italian, Ukrainian, Swahili, Tagalog and dozens of other spoken languages cause the same “universal language network” to light up in the brains of native speakers. This hub of language processing has been studied extensively in English speakers, but now neuroscientists have confirmed that the exact same network is activated in speakers of 45 different languages representing 12 distinct language families.”

Dreaming up new proteins, AI churns out possible medicines and vaccines –” new AI software that can “paint” or “hallucinate” structures for proteins that don’t yet exist in nature. The software has already created original compounds for potential use in industrial reactions, cancer treatment, and even a vaccine candidate aimed at preventing RSV infections,” reports Science.

The world is ‘losing the window’ to contain monkeypox, warns Science.”Monkeypox is a zoonotic disease; thus, another critical step is to greatly reduce transmission of the virus from current rodent reservoirs and to prevent spillovers in areas of the world where monkeypox isn’t endemic. Long-term control of monkeypox will require vaccinating as many as possible of the 327 million people 40 years of age and younger living in the 11 African countries where monkeypox is endemic in an animal (rodent) reservoir.”

Meet Qikiqtania, a fossil fish with the good sense to stay in the water while others ventured onto land, reports Thomas Stewart, Assistant Professor of Biology, Penn State for The Conversation.

Architects Are Copying Nature to Make Low-Carbon Buildings –Plants and animals have adapted to their environments—and some hope biomimicry tools will help humans do the same, reports Wired. “Can a building behave like a forest—by generating its own energy, absorbing naturally available water, and producing no waste?”

Tracing Water Particles Back in Time –Every summer, a low-oxygen pool settles off Canada’s western coast. A new study uses robust modeling to track the origins of the dense water, reports Eos. “

Superfoods of the Future, reports the BBC. “For most people in Europe and the US, the idea of eating crickets and grasshoppers can seem revolting, but they are a popular snack in parts of Africa and Asia. Not only are they packed with nutrients but they are less harmful to the climate too.”

You’re astonishing!–Life can be better appreciated when you remember how wonderfully and frighteningly unlikely it is that you exist at all, reports Aeon.

“Ways of Seeing” –At the start of the first TV episode of Ways of Seeing, John Berger takes a scalpel to Botticelli’s Venus and Mars. The opening beat of the program is the audio of the incision – the blade’s rough abrasion on canvas – before the soundtrack settles into voiceover. ‘This is the first of four programs,’ Berger says, ‘in which I want to question some of the assumptions usually made about the tradition of European painting. That tradition which was born about 1400, died about 1900,’ reports Aeon.

How the ‘Diamond of the Plant World’ Helped Land Plants Evolve--Structural studies of the robust material called sporopollenin reveal how it made plants hardy enough to reproduce on dry land, reports James Dinneen for Quanta.

Curated by The Daily Galaxy Editorial Staff

Recent Planet Earth Reports:

NASA Zooms in on UFOs to Is Life the Result of Entropy?

James Webb Space Telescope’s Super-Secret Targets to Is Geometry a Language Only Humans Know?

Critics Horrified by World’s First Octopus Farm to Quest for Immortality

China’s One-of-a-Kind Cyber-Espionage to Multiverse of Universes All with Randomly Dialed Higgs Masses Virus from

Age of Dinosaurs Found in Human Genome to Is Earth’s Core a Weird State of Matter?

Why are NASA Spaceships Exploring Earth’s Deepest Oceans to Is Reality a Wavefunction? 

The Terrifying Message Lurking in Earth’s Ancient Record to Robots Evolving Autonomously

The Quantum Century to Events That Could Have Ended Humanity

The ‘Douglas Adams Epoch’ to Earth’s Earliest Life May Owe Existence to Viruses

The Galaxy Report newsletter brings you daily news of space and science that has the capacity to provide clues to the mystery of our existence and add a much needed cosmic perspective in our current Anthropocene Epoch.

Yes, sign me up for my free subscription.

Read about The Daily Galaxy editorial team here

Today’s stories range from Enormous Impact Flash Seen Lighting Up Jupiter’s Atmosphere to Did China Just Detect Signals from an Alien Civilization to A New Place for Consciousness in Our Understanding of the Universe, and much more.

Seven solar system mysteries scientists haven’t solved yet. Why is our moon so weird? Was there ever life on Mars? Big cosmic questions lurk in our celestial backyard. The next time you look up at a bright full moon, think about this: No one knows, precisely, where the moon came from,” reports VOX. 

Enormous impact flash seen lighting up Jupiter’s atmosphere –Astronomers spotted a huge space rock slamming into Jupiter, creating a blast of light and energy equivalent to 2 million tons of TNT – the brightest such event since 1994, reports New Scientist.

This is the most important equation in cosmology –-If you want to understand the Universe, cosmologically, you just can’t do it without the Friedmann equation. With it, the cosmos is yours, reports Big Think. “Although Hubble’s law, v = Hr, was the equation that established an observational basis for the expanding Universe, the Friedmann equations, derived years prior, provided the foundation for modern cosmology. Today, the first Friedmann equation is absolutely indispensable, from the Big Bang to dark energy and everything in between.”

What is time? The mysterious essence of the fourth dimension –The nature of time is a tricky notion to pin down. But whether it is a fundamental part of our universe or just an illusion has huge implications, asks New Scientist.

Mystery Objects: The Largest Known Population of ‘Immortal’ Brown Dwarfs Revealed –“It is estimated that up to 60 billion brown dwarfs make their home in the Milky Way. Because these elusive celestial objects do not fuse hydrogen in their core, they spend their lives cooling as they lose that gravitational energy from their formation, morphing as they age from looking like a low-mass star to looking like Jupiter. Every brown dwarf that was ever created still exists because they can’t fuse hydrogen, giving them a calm, sustained existence on the vast timeframe of the cosmos.

Did China just detect signals from an alien civilization? asks Leonard David for Space.com –“One report, by the state-backed Science and Technology Daily, cited Zhang Tonjie, chief scientist of an extraterrestrial civilization search team co-founded by Beijing Normal University, the National Astronomical Observatory of the Chinese Academy of Sciences and the University of California, Berkeley.” China’s science ministry said this week that it picked up signs of alien life on the world’s largest radio telescope — then appeared to quickly delete a report about the discovery.

New maps of asteroid Psyche reveal an ancient world of metal and rock–The varied surface suggests a dynamic history, which could include metallic eruptions, asteroid-shaking impacts, and a lost rocky mantle, reports MIT.

Astronomers discover a multi-planet system nearby—Just 33 light years from Earth, the system appears to host two rocky, Earth-sized planets, reports MIT.

NASA is embarking on a risky mission to investigate UAPs, reports Axios. “But by launching the investigation, NASA is wading into an area rife with conspiracy and messaging that’s difficult to control, which could be a risk for the agency’s stellar public reputation.”

Is life the result of the laws of entropy? –Nearly 80 years ago, Erwin Schrödinger used the physics of the day to try to understand the origins of life. Now, Stephon Alexander and Salvador Almagro-Moreno try to do the same with modern science, reports New Scientist.

The cosmos can kill us in many ways. But the James Webb Space Telescope can help save us –-The James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) will study many dangerous cosmic phenomena, knowledge of which may help save humanity, reports Big Think. Ultimately, if we don’t want to end up like the dinosaurs, we need to become a multi-planetary species.”

Controversial claim that the universe is skewed could upend cosmology –Our understanding of the universe is underpinned by the cosmological principle: the assumption that, on the grandest scales, it looks more or less the same in all directions. What if that’s wrong? asks New Scientist.

Google engineer claims his AI is sentient. It definitely is not –The engineer working on Google’s AI, called LaMDA, suffers from what we could call Michelangelo Syndrome. Scientists must beware hubris, reports Big Think.

James Webb Space Telescope was hit by a tiny space rock – but it’s OK –One of the mirrors of NASA’s huge new space observatory, the James Webb Space Telescope, was hit by a small space rock larger than anything tests on the ground involved, reports New Scientist.

Something Strange is Impacting the Atmosphere of Venus: Is it Life? asks The Daily Galaxy. –“Researchers from the University of Cambridge have concluded: “If life was responsible for the sulphur (SO2) levels we see on Venus, it would break everything we know about Venus’s atmospheric chemistry.” 

Mysterious cold blobs may be hiding inside a distant star–A small star called AU Microscopii seems to contain strange pockets of hydrogen that are more than 1500°C cooler than the rest of the star, and astronomers aren’t sure why, reports New Scientist.

A mysterious intergalactic force is pushing against the Milky Way, reports Paul Sutter for Space.com. “The name may be a bit dorky, but it’s a very real thing. It’s also nothing to worry about — just a normal consequence of the usual process of structure formation that’s been happening in the universe for [checks watch] 13.8 billion years. Meet the dipole repeller.”

A new place for consciousness in our understanding of the universe–To make sense of mysteries like quantum mechanics and the passage of time, theorists are trying to reformulate physics to include subjective experience as a physical constituent of the world, reports New Scientist.

Astronomers Reimagine the Making of the Planets, reports Rebecca Boyle for Quanta. Observations of faraway planets have forced a near-total rewrite of the story of how our solar system came to be.

The GAIA Revolution, reports Sky & Telescope –“Astronomers will use the newest data release from the Gaia mission to explore stellar tsunamis, Milky Way history, and more.”

Record-Breaking Voyager Spacecraft Begin to Power Down--The pioneering probes are still running after nearly 45 years in space, but they will soon lose some of their instruments, reports Tim Folger for Scientific American. 

Canadian Telescope Delivers Deepest-Ever Radio View of Cosmic Web –Data from the CHIME radio observatory are a milestone in the quest to discover the hidden origins of universal structure, reports Scientific American.

Fastest-growing black hole of past 9bn years may have been found, Australian-led astronomers say –Scientists spot extremely luminous object powered by supermassive black hole, reports The Guardian. “The supermassive black hole consumes the equivalent of one Earth every second and has the mass of 3bn suns, they estimate. Scientists discovered an extremely bright quasar, a luminous object powered by a supermassive black hole, using the SkyMapper Southern Sky Survey – a 1.3-metre telescope in Coonabarabran, New South Wales.

Something Strange is Impacting the Atmosphere of Venus: Is it Life? reports The Daily Galaxy. “Researchers from the University of Cambridge have concluded: “If life was responsible for the Sulphur (SO2) levels we see on Venus, it would break everything we know about Venus’s atmospheric chemistry.”  

Physicists Rewrite the Fundamental Law That Leads to Disorder, reports Philip Ball for Quanta.The second law of thermodynamics is among the most sacred in all of science, but it has always rested on 19th century arguments about probability. New arguments trace its true source to the flows of quantum information.

Curated by The Daily Galaxy Editorial Staff

The Galaxy Report newsletter brings you twice-weekly news of space and science that has the capacity to provide clues to the mystery of our existence and add a much needed cosmic perspective in our current Anthropocene Epoch.

Yes, sign me up for my free subscription.

Recent Galaxy Reports:

Unmistakable Signal of Alien Life to What Happens if China Makes First Contact?

Clues to Alien Life to A Galaxy 100 x Size of Milky Way 

Cracks in Einstein’s Theory of Gravity to Colossal Shock Wave Bigger than the Milky Way 

Monster Comet Arriving from the Oort Cloud to Black Hole Apocalypse 

Enigmas of Stephen Hawking’s Blackboard to Why the Universe and Life Exist 

Einstein’s Critics to NASA Theologians Prepare for Alien Contact

Mind-Bending New Multiverse Theory to Dark-Matter Asteroids of the Milky Way 

Mysterious Expanding Regions of Dark Matter to Are Black Holes Holograms

Read about The Daily Galaxy editorial team here

Researchers from the University of Cambridge have concluded: “If life was responsible for the sulphur (SO2) levels we see on Venus, it would break everything we know about Venus’s atmospheric chemistry.” 

The unusual behavior of sulfur (SO2)  in Venus’ atmosphere cannot be explained by an “aerial” –”life in the clouds”–form of extraterrestrial life, according to a new study by the researchers, who used a combination of biochemistry and atmospheric chemistry to test the hypothesis, which astronomers have speculated about for decades.The team found that life cannot explain the composition of the Venusian atmosphere.

Any life form in sufficient abundance is expected to leave chemical fingerprints on a planet’s atmosphere as it consumes food and expels waste. However, the Cambridge researchers found no evidence of these fingerprints on Venus.

Even if Venus is devoid of life, the researchers say their results, reported in the journal Nature Communications, could be useful for studying the atmospheres of similar planets throughout the galaxy, and the eventual detection of life outside our solar system.

Venus: Secrets of Our Strange Sister Planet

“We’ve spent the past two years trying to explain the weird sulfur chemistry we see in the clouds of Venus,” said co-author Dr. Paul Rimmer from Cambridge’s Department of Earth Sciences. “Life is pretty good at weird chemistry, so we’ve been studying whether there’s a way to make life a potential explanation for what we see.”

The researchers used a combination of atmospheric and biochemical models to study the chemical reactions that are expected to occur, given the known sources of chemical energy in Venus’s atmosphere.

“We looked at the sulfur-based ‘food’ available in the Venusian atmosphere—it’s not anything you or I would want to eat, but it is the main available energy source,” said Sean Jordan from Cambridge’s Institute of Astronomy, the paper’s first author. “If that food is being consumed by life, we should see evidence of that through specific chemicals being lost and gained in the atmosphere.”

The models looked at a particular feature of the Venusian atmosphere—the abundance of sulfur dioxide (SO2). On Earth, most SO2 in the atmosphere comes from volcanic emissions. On Venus, there are high levels of SO2 lower in the clouds, but it somehow gets “sucked out” of the atmosphere at higher altitudes.

“If life is present, it must be affecting the atmospheric chemistry,” said co-author Dr. Oliver Shorttle from Cambridge’s Department of Earth Sciences and Institute of Astronomy. “Could life be the reason that SO2 levels on Venus get reduced so much?”

Venus Could Have Been Habitable and Radically Different from the Planet We See Today

The models, developed by Jordan, include a list of metabolic reactions that the life forms would carry out in order to get their “food,” and the waste by-products. The researchers ran the model to see if the reduction in SO2 levels could be explained by these metabolic reactions.

They found that the metabolic reactions can result in a drop in SO2 levels, but only by producing other molecules in very large amounts that aren’t seen. The results set a hard limit on how much life could exist on Venus without blowing apart our understanding of how chemical reactions work in planetary atmospheres.

“If life was responsible for the SO2 levels we see on Venus, it would also break everything we know about Venus’s atmospheric chemistry,” said Jordan. “We wanted life to be a potential explanation, but when we ran the models, it isn’t a viable solution. But if life isn’t responsible for what we see on Venus, it’s still a problem to be solved—there’s lots of strange chemistry to follow up on.”

Although there’s no evidence of sulfur-eating life hiding in the clouds of Venus, the researchers say their method of analyzing atmospheric signatures will be valuable when JWST, the successor to the Hubble Telescope, begins returning images of other planetary systems later this year. Some of the sulfur molecules in the current study are easy to see with JWST, so learning more about the chemical behavior of our next-door neighbor could help scientists figure out similar planets across the galaxy.

“To understand why some planets are alive, we need to understand why other planets are dead,” said Shorttle. “If life somehow managed to sneak into the Venusian clouds, it would totally change how we search for chemical signs of life on other planets.”

Clues to Alien Life -Billions of Fragments of Venus May Exist on the Moon

“Even if ‘our’ Venus is dead, it’s possible that Venus-like planets in other systems could host life,” said Rimmer, who is also affiliated with Cambridge’s Cavendish Laboratory. “We can take what we’ve learned here and apply it to exoplanetary systems—this is just the beginning.”

The Last Word –Martin Ferus, Sean Jordan and Paul Rimmer

Sean Jordan: “I would say that, given that life likely cannot be responsible for the observed SO2-depletion via the proposed energy-metabolisms, this would strengthen the in-droplet cloud chemistry hypothesis from Rimmer et al., 2021 as a possible explanation to the SO2-depletion. The hypothesis relies on a flux of mineral dust to the cloud layer and remains unconfirmed, however it may be possible to confirm when we return to Venus at the end of decade.”

Paul Rimmer: “What chemistry is involved depends a lot on what is in the clouds. For context: Historically, there have been claims of PH3, NH3, H2S, CH4 and O2, based on probe measurements and ground-based measurements (in the case of PH3). The amounts of these range from ppb to ppm concentrations. If all of these are present in the clouds in ppm concentrations, then there is significant redox disequilibrium chemistry in the clouds, and either life is producing this disequilibrium chemistry, or significant disequilibrium chemistry can be produced without life. If there are abiotic sources of significant disequilibrium chemistry, then it turns out that disequilibrium chemistry may not provide good evidence for the presence of life.

“If it’s just one or a couple of these things, maybe just PH3, then I still don’t know what abiotic process exactly could be producing this, but my bet is on heterogenous chemistry in the clouds, maybe something involving photochemical sources of reducing species, like Martin Ferus‘s group suggests (full disclosure: I’m collaborating with Martin on these experiments).”

Martin Ferus: “Photochemistry on surfaces can mimic life by producing false positive biosignature gases. For instance, acidic surfaces of aerosol can produce methane from carbon dioxide and maybe also phosphine from oxidized phosphorus compounds upon UV light. Both are highly related to unknown chemistry in upper Venus clouds. But, this must be explored and we are working on that. However, not only photochemistry, but complex Venus chemistry must be explored and its history must be well understood. Venus is a type of a planet representing maybe one of Earth evolution stages, maybe hot stage in Earth’s very early history, but for sure the Earth’s future, because solar power is slowly increasing and Earth will be as hot as Venus some day in distant future.”

Source: Could acid-neutralizing life-forms make habitable pockets in Venus’ clouds?

More information: Sean Jordan, Proposed energy-metabolisms cannot explain the atmospheric chemistry of Venus, Nature Communications (2022). DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-30804-8. www.nature.com/articles/s41467-022-30804-8

Image credit: NASA

Martin Ferus, Sean Jordan, Paul Rimmer and University of Cambridge 

The Galaxy Report newsletter brings you twice-weekly news of space and science that has the capacity to provide clues to the mystery of our existence and add a much needed cosmic perspective in our current Anthropocene Epoch.

Yes, sign me up for my free subscription.

Recent Galaxy Reports:

Unmistakable Signal of Alien Life to What Happens if China Makes First Contact?

Clues to Alien Life to A Galaxy 100 x Size of Milky Way 

Cracks in Einstein’s Theory of Gravity to Colossal Shock Wave Bigger than the Milky Way 

Monster Comet Arriving from the Oort Cloud to Black Hole Apocalypse 

Enigmas of Stephen Hawking’s Blackboard to Why the Universe and Life Exist 

Einstein’s Critics to NASA Theologians Prepare for Alien Contact

Mind-Bending New Multiverse Theory to Dark-Matter Asteroids of the Milky Way 

Mysterious Expanding Regions of Dark Matter to Are Black Holes Holograms

Read about The Daily Galaxy editorial team here

Today’s stories range from The James Webb is About to Take Us to the “Edge of Time” to 4 Signs of Alien Tech That Could Lead Us to Extraterrestrial Life, and much more. “The Galaxy Report” brings you news of space and science that has the capacity to provide clues to the mystery of our existence and adds a much needed cosmic perspective in our current Anthropocene Epoch.

A blueprint for life forms on Mars? reports McGill University. “if you want to learn more about the kinds of life forms that could once have existed—or may still exist—on Mars, the Arctic’s Lost Hammer Springs is a good place to look. After much searching under extremely difficult conditions, McGill University researchers have found microbes that have never been identified before. Moreover, by using state-of-the-art genomic techniques, they have gained insight into their metabolisms.”

What if the aliens we are looking for are AI?, asks Richard Hollingham for The BBC Future. “or more than a century we have been broadcasting our presence to the cosmos. This year, the faintest signals from the world’s first major televised event – the Nazi-hosted 1936 Olympics – will have passed several potentially habitable planets. The first season of Game of Thrones has already reached the nearest star beyond our Solar System. So why hasn’t ET called us back?”

“New Inflation” and the Many Worlds of the Multiverse

In a Parallel Universe, Another You. As they probe the secrets of the cosmos, scientists question whether our reality is but one in a multiverse, reports physicist Michio Kaku for The New York Times. “Today, many of the world’s top physicists are embarking on this cosmic quest, whose far-reaching reverberations span our understanding of reality and the meaning of existence. It would be the crowning achievement of thousands of years of scientific investigation, since ancient civilizations also wondered how the universe was created and what it is made of.”

These 4 signs of alien technology could lead us to extraterrestrial life, reports Marcus Chown for BBC Science Focus. Pioneering scientists think we should start looking for extraterrestrials in a whole new way: by seeking out alien technology.

Betelgeuse ‘Great Dimming’ Mystery Solved by Satellite Photobomb–Images from Japan’s Himawari-8 spacecraft shed light on the red supergiant star’s remarkable fading, reports Scientific American. 

Something Strange is Impacting the Atmosphere of Venus: Is it Life?, asks The Daily Galaxy. “Researchers from the University of Cambridge have concluded: “If life was responsible for the sulphur (SO2) levels we see on Venus, it would break everything we know about Venus’s atmospheric chemistry.” 

Water-rich exoplanets and icy Moons like Jupiter’s Europa and Saturn’s Enceladus are potential targets for astrobiologists looking for signs of life elsewhere in the cosmos, reports Yahoo News. But until recently it was assumed that for many water-rich exoplanets larger than Earth but smaller than Neptune, ice forming deep in the planet would keep important minerals in their rocky core from water closer to the surface.

How Does NASA Get Back to the Moon? Practice, Practice, Practice, reports The New York Times. The agency mostly completed a dress rehearsal of the fueling and countdown of its rocket, a crucial step before it can launch an uncrewed capsule around the moon.

Ancient meteorite upends our ideas of how Mars formed--Meteorite analysis hints that early Mars got important volatile elements like hydrogen and oxygen from meteorite collisions rather than a cloud of gases, reports New Scientist.

The gaming tech that may help find alien life, reports The BBC Future. “An iconic Australian telescope has begun a major new search for ET – using some everyday tech to help locate signals.”

Astronomer Feryal Özel on what the first two pictures of black holes tell us. Feryal Özel is one of the pioneers of black hole photography. With two pictures in the album, she explains what we have learned about these gravitational monsters – and what comes next.

James Webb is about to take us to the “edge of time”. Here’s why that’s even cooler than it sounds, reports Dr Katie Mack for BBC Science Focus. NASA’s newly launched space telescope is a spectacular upgrade, allowing us to see deeper into the past than ever before.

Will we ever unite physics? Clocks in superposition could offer clues –Physicists have long sought to marry general relativity and quantum mechanics – now some reckon experiments that probe the way each theory treats time could finally make it happen.

Curated by The Daily Galaxy Editorial Staff

The Galaxy Report newsletter brings you twice-weekly news of space and science that has the capacity to provide clues to the mystery of our existence and add a much needed cosmic perspective in our current Anthropocene Epoch.

Yes, sign me up for my free subscription.

Recent Galaxy Reports:

Unmistakable Signal of Alien Life to What Happens if China Makes First Contact?

Clues to Alien Life to A Galaxy 100 x Size of Milky Way 

Cracks in Einstein’s Theory of Gravity to Colossal Shock Wave Bigger than the Milky Way 

Monster Comet Arriving from the Oort Cloud to Black Hole Apocalypse 

Enigmas of Stephen Hawking’s Blackboard to Why the Universe and Life Exist 

Einstein’s Critics to NASA Theologians Prepare for Alien Contact

Mind-Bending New Multiverse Theory to Dark-Matter Asteroids of the Milky Way 

Mysterious Expanding Regions of Dark Matter to Are Black Holes Holograms

Read about The Daily Galaxy editorial team here

Billions of years ago, Mars was a land of wild and scenic rivers that were wider than those on Earth today—and occurred at hundreds of locations on the red planet. Archived Image data from ESA’s Mars Express spacecraft showed that, at some points, one ancient riverbed that  flowed through a valley called Mawrth Vallis was 4.3 miles (7 kilometers) wide and 984 feet (300 meters) deep. The stereo cameras onboard the satellite also revealed “numerous tributaries” that fed the gigantic river.

A new 2022  study examines the tracks of Martian rivers shown in the image at the top of the page to see what they can reveal about the history of the planet’s water and atmosphere. (NASA/JPL Caltech/University of Arizona).

Mars once ran red with rivers. The telltale tracks of past rivers, streams and lakes are still visible today. 

“Their Source a Mystery” -The Wild and Scenic Rivers of Ancient Mars

A 2019 study by University of Chicago scientists cataloged these rivers to conclude that significant river runoff persisted on Mars later into its history than previously thought. According to the study, the runoff was intense and occurred at hundreds of locations on the red planet.  Image data from ESA’s Mars Express spacecraft shows that, at some points, one ancient riverbed was 4.3 miles (7 kilometers) wide and 984 feet (300 meters) deep. The stereo cameras onboard the satellite also revealed “numerous tributaries” that fed the gigantic river.

Three Billion Years Ago The Rivers Vanished

But about three billion years ago, they all dried up—and no one knows exactly why. The leading hypothesis is that the molten metallic core of Mars cooled and solidified. As a result, Mars lost its large-scale magnetic field that protected its atmosphere from solar winds. Greenhouse gasses and other molecules in the Martian atmosphere escaped, but scientists are uncertain of the timescale and specific atmospheric modifications that were the driving forces behind the Martian climate change.

“People have put forward different ideas, but we’re not sure what caused the climate to change so dramatically,” said University of Chicago geophysical scientist Edwin Kite. “We’d really like to understand, especially because it’s the only planet we definitely know changed from habitable to uninhabitable.” 

Mars Insight Spacecraft –Reveals Remnants of Red Planet’s Ancient Switched-Off Magnetic Field

Kite is the first author of a new study that examines the tracks of Martian rivers to see what they can reveal about the history of the planet’s water and atmosphere.

Previously, many scientists had assumed that losing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, which helped to keep Mars warm, caused the trouble. But the new findings, published in Science Advances, suggest that the change was caused by the loss of some other important ingredient that maintained the planet warm enough for running water.

“Lost to Space?” –Long-Held Theory About Mars’s Water Nixed

Mariner 9 Mission Revelation

In 1972, scientists were astonished to see pictures from NASA’s Mariner 9 mission as it circled Mars from orbit. The photos revealed a landscape full of riverbeds—evidence that the planet once had plenty of liquid water, even though it’s dry as a bone today.

Planetary climates are enormously complex, with many, many variables to account for—especially if you want to keep your planet in the “Goldilocks” zone where it’s exactly warm enough for water to be liquid but not so hot that it boils. Heat can come from a planet’s sun, but it has to be near enough to receive radiation but not so near that the radiation strips away the atmosphere. Greenhouse gasses, such as carbon dioxide and methane, can trap heat near a planet’s surface. Water itself plays a role, too; it can exist as clouds in the atmosphere or as snow and ice on the surface. Snowcaps tend to act as a mirror to reflect away sunlight back into space, but clouds can either trap or reflect away light, depending on their height and composition.

Mystery at Mars South Pole –Ancient Object With Enormous Implications for Climate Change

Kite and his collaborators ran many different combinations of these factors in their simulations, looking for conditions that could cause the planet to be warm enough for at least some liquid water to exist in rivers for more than a billion years—but then abruptly lose it.

But as they compared different simulations, they saw something surprising. Changing the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere didn’t change the outcome. That is, the driving force of the change didn’t seem to be carbon dioxide.

“Carbon dioxide is a strong greenhouse gas, so it really was the leading candidate to explain the drying out of Mars,” said Kite, an expert on the climates of other worlds. “But these results suggest it’s not so simple.”

The Death of Mars -Did a Pluto-Size Asteroid Ignite Ancient Climate Change?

The Scenarios —New Evidence

There are several alternative options. The new evidence fits nicely with a scenario, suggested in a 2021 study from Kite, where a layer of thin, icy clouds high in Mars’ atmosphere acts like translucent greenhouse glass, trapping heat. Other scientists have suggested that if hydrogen was released from the planet’s interior, it could have interacted with carbon dioxide in the atmosphere to absorb infrared light and warm the planet.

“We don’t know what this factor is, but we need a lot of it to have existed to explain the results,” Kite said.

There are a number of ways to try to narrow down the possible factors; the team suggests several possible tests for NASA’s Perseverance rover to perform that could reveal clues.

Kite and colleague Sasha Warren are also part of the science team that will be directing NASA’s Curiosity Mars rover to search for clues about why Mars dried out. They hope that these efforts, as well as measurements from Perseverance, can provide additional clues to the puzzle.

On Earth, many forces have combined to keep the conditions remarkably stable for millions of years. But other planets may not be so lucky. One of the many questions scientists have about other planets is exactly how lucky we are—that is, how often this confluence occurs in the universe. They hope that studying what happened to other planets, such as Mars, can yield clues about planetary climates and how many other planets out there might be habitable.

“It’s really striking that we have this puzzle right next door, and yet we’re still not sure how to explain it,” said Kite.

The Last Word –Max Moe, University of Arizona, Editor at The Daily Galaxy.

“The notion that Venus was habitable and had liquid water is speculative, so I agree with Edwin’s quote that Mars is the only planet with definitive evidence of going from habitable to uninhabitable.” Regarding the cause of the atmospheric change, I’ll add the following that still maintains Edwin’s point of we not being exactly sure of the atmospheric driving force behind the climate change: “The leading hypothesis is that the molten metallic core of Mars cooled and solidified. As a result, Mars lost its large-scale magnetic field that protected its atmosphere from solar winds. Greenhouse gasses and other molecules in the Martian atmosphere escaped, but scientists are uncertain of the timescale and specific atmospheric modifications that were the driving forces behind the Martian climate change.”

Image credit: NASA/JPL Caltech/University of Arizona

Source: Edwin S. Kite et al, Changing spatial distribution of water flow charts major change in Mars’s greenhouse effect, Science Advance

Maxwell Moe, astrophysicist, NASA Einstein Fellow, University of Arizona via University of Chicago

Read about The Daily Galaxy editorial team here

Today’s stories range from  Seeing the Earth through Alien Eyes: an Extraterrestrial View of Our Planet to Bizarre ‘Black Widow’ Star System Challenges Models of Space to Is the Origin of Dark Matter Gravity? and much more. The Galaxy Report” brings you news of space and science that has the capacity to provide clues to the mystery of our existence and adds a much needed cosmic perspective in our current Anthropocene Epoch.

Seeing the Earth through alien eyes: an extraterrestrial view of our planet, reports Physics World –“Aliens spying on us from across interstellar space is a classic trope of science fiction. But working out what those extraterrestrials might see if they pointed their telescopes at us could help in our quest for finding life on distant Earth-like planets, as James Romero explains “No-one would have believed in the last years of the 19th century that this world was being watched keenly and closely by intelligences greater than man’s.”

We are the only humans in the universe –All life forms, anywhere in our Universe, are chemically connected yet completely unique, reports Big Think. “The Universe is so huge, and the worlds within it so numerous, that it seems like anything is possible. But the laws of physics and chemistry are the same everywhere. We are chemically connected to the rest of the cosmos, sharing the same basis for life as any other hypothetical living thing. Yet we are unique. There can be no other humans in the Universe.”

Bizarre ‘Black Widow’ Star System Challenges Models of Space –-It just kept getting weirder,” said the lead author of a new study on a unique “spider” star system, reports Motherboard Science. “This cosmic black widow, located about 3,000 light years from Earth, has the shortest orbital period ever recorded, a discovery that “pushes the boundaries of evolutionary models” and distinguishes the system “from any known spider binary,” according to a study published on Wednesday in Nature.

What is the multiverse—and is there any evidence it really exists? –Scientists can only see so far before they run into the edge of the universe. Will we ever know if anything lies beyond? asks National Geographic. “Our understanding of reality is not complete, by far,” says Stanford University physicist Andrei Linde. “Reality exists independently of us.”

To see the Universe more clearly, think in terms of processes, not objects, reports Aeon –“Nothing is fixed in time or space. Everything – from quantum particles to people, planets and galaxies – is in constant motion, and part of a constellation of inextricably interwoven systems. That might seem like a strictly academic observation with little bearing on your day-to-day life, but, as Thomas Nail, a professor of philosophy at the University of Denver, argues in this short video, overlooking this fact can have real-world consequences.”

Is life possible on Mars? –Was there ever life on Mars? Is there life on Mars now? Did it originate there or here, on Earth? All possibilities are fascinating, reports Big Think.

Secrets of the Moon’s Permanent Shadows Are Coming to Light –Robots are about to venture into the sunless depths of lunar craters to investigate ancient water ice trapped there, while remote studies find hints about how water arrives on rocky worlds, reports Quanta.

A Mysterious ‘X Particle’ Could Help Explain the Birth of Reality, reports Becky Ferreira for Motherboard Vice Science. “These short-lived particles, which are called “X” because their internal structure is unknown, existed in the chaotic microseconds after the Big Bang, when the universe was filled with a churning subatomic soup called quark-gluon plasma. They are, however, exceedingly rare in the modern universe, leaving many of their properties shrouded in mystery.

Is the Origin of Dark Matter Gravity? reports Paul Sutter for Space.com –“A new model of the very early universe proposes that the graviton, the quantum mechanical force carrier of gravity, flooded the cosmos with dark matter before normal matter even had a chance to get started. The proposal could be a way to connect two of the biggest outstanding puzzles in modern cosmology: the nature of dark matter and the history of cosmic inflation.”

Mysterious gamma rays at center of Milky Way could be from pulsars –A glow of gamma rays from within our galaxy has long puzzled astronomers, but now it seems they could be produced by a specific type of millisecond pulsar, reports New Scientist.

Jupiter and Venus will seem to nearly collide in rare celestial spectacle –Stargazers will have to wait years for repeat performance with four planets also appearing in straight line, reports The Guardian. “This year Jupiter and Venus will look much closer together than usual and should be visible with just a pair of binoculars or even the naked eye. If you miss it, you will have to wait another 17 years for a repeat performance.”

Canadian Telescope Delivers Deepest-Ever Radio View of Cosmic Web –Data from the CHIME radio observatory are a milestone in the quest to discover the hidden origins of universal structure, reports Ben Brubaker for Scientific American.

The Universe Could Start Shrinking ‘Remarkably’ Soon, Scientists Say –After nearly 13.8 billion years of nonstop expansion, the Universe could soon grind to a standstill, then slowly start to contract, new research published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences suggests,” reports Science Alert.

Two examples of alien technology? –Harvard astronomer Avi Loeb is known for thinking out of the box. For example, in 2018, he suggested that ‘Oumuamua – the object from a distant solar system that’d passed near our sun the year before – might be alien technology. On April 20, 2022, in an article in The Debrief, Loeb suggested that a meteor known to have crashed in the Pacific Ocean in 2014, might also be technology from an alien civilization, reports Earth Sky.

Cosmic Simulation Shows How Dark-Matter-Deficient Galaxies Confront Goliath and Survive, reports Joanna Thompson for Scientific American. 

Quantum complexity could solve a wormhole paradox, reports Physics World. 

Read about The Daily Galaxy editorial team here

Today’s stories range from Spurred by the Pentagon Congress Will Hold Public Hearings on UFOs for the First Time in Decades to Large Hadron Collider revamp could revolutionize physics, and much more. The Planet Earth  Report provides descriptive links to headline news by leading science journalists about the extraordinary discoveries, technology, people, and events changing our knowledge of Planet Earth and the future of the human species.

For the First Time in Decades, Congress Will Hold Public Hearings on UFOs –The hearing comes after the Pentagon report on unidentified aerial phenomena was released last June, reports Passant Rabie for Gizmodo.

Einstein’s beef with quantum physics, explained--Our world would be impossible without quantum mechanics — but we still don’t have a narrative of how it works, reports Big Think. 

RNA Molecules Evolve Into a Tiny Ecosystem –“At the dawn of life, simple networks of molecules somehow started to evolve, diversify and become more complex. Researchers have now found clues to how this might have happened by watching RNA molecules evolve in a test tube,” reports Quanta.

NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope is almost ready for science. Here’s what’s next, reports Elizabeth Howell for Space.com. The first science work for the $10 billion telescope should start in the early summer.

Powerful ‘Machine Scientists’ Distill the Laws of Physics From Raw Data, reports Quanta. Researchers say we’re on the cusp of “GoPro physics,” where a camera can point at an event and an algorithm can identify the underlying physics equation.

SpaceX Starlink Internet Has 150,000 Daily Users in Ukraine, reports Sean Keane for CNET –“SpaceX’s Starlink satellite internet has been vital for Ukrainians who’ve remained in the Eastern European country during the Russian invasion, a top Ukrainian official said in a tweet. The service from Elon Musk’s rocket company has roughly 150,000 daily users in Ukraine, according to vice prime minister Mykhailo Fedorov.”

Another Species of Hominin May Still Be Alive –-Do members of Homo floresiensis still inhabit the Indonesian island where their fossils helped identify a new human species fewer than 20 years ago? asks The Scientist.

Fascia: The long-overlooked tissue that shapes your health –The connective tissue that surrounds your muscles and organs, known as fascia, has always been ignored – but new insights suggest it holds the key to tackling chronic pain and immune dysfunction, reports New Scientist. 

Large hadron collider: A revamp that could revolutionize physics, reports The BB –“Deep underground amidst the Alps, scientists are barely able to contain their excitement. They whisper about discoveries that would radically alter our understanding of the Universe. I’ve been hunting for the fifth force for as long as I’ve been a particle physicist,” says Dr Sam Harper. “Maybe this is the year”.

Is There Life in the TRAPPIST-1 Star System? – “Twice as Old as Our Solar System”, reports Max Moe for THe Daily Galaxy. “Could one of the seven tightly packed planets of the TRAPPIST-1 system be the first exoplanet where the James Webb Space Telescope detects unmistakable signs of life? Life may be possible if these planets had more water initially than Earth, Venus, or Mars, said  astrobiologist Andrew Lincowski at the University of Washington, about a nearby star and planetary system called TRAPPIST-1, first Discovered in 2016 some 40 light-years away.”

Group that wants to contact aliens will transmit to TRAPPIST-1 system –METI, an organization aiming to make contact with other civilizations, will send out its second message from Goonhilly Satellite Earth Station in Cornwall, UK, reports New Scientist.

Did ancient Greek philosophers believe in aliens? –Speculation about the existence of aliens goes all the way back at least to the Greek philosophers. Their arguments will sound familiar, reports Big Think.

Two-Headed Worms Tell Us Something Fascinating About Evolution, reports Scientific American. “

Emperor Penguins Could Be Extinct in Our Lifetimes –The Antarctic sea ice the penguins need has been disappearing and off-schedule. Baby birds “drown and freeze” as a result, reports Gizmodo. “The biggest reason emperor penguins can’t easily adapt to climate change comes down to sea ice. The flightless birds have been historically considered sea ice “obligate.” To breed, they depend on parts of the Southern Ocean freezing on schedule and for that ice to stick around until the Antarctic summer.”

Evolution of 1918 Flu Virus Traced from Century-Old Samples –The work reveals that the pandemic flu was likely the direct predecessor of the seasonal H1N1 flu that circulated for decades, reports The Scientist. 

What Really Happened to Michael Rockefeller–A journey to the heart of New Guinea’s Asmat tribal homeland sheds new light on the mystery of the heir’s disappearance there in 1961, reports The Smithsonian.

The Deadliest Disaster at Sea Killed Thousands, Yet Its Story Is Little-Known. Why? asks The Smithsonian.In the final months of World War II, 75 years ago, German citizens and soldiers fleeing the Soviet army died when the “Wilhelm Gustloff” sank.

Curated by The Daily Galaxy editorial Staff

The Galaxy Report newsletter brings you daily news of space and science that has the capacity to provide clues to the mystery of our existence and add a much needed cosmic perspective in our current Anthropocene Epoch.

Yes, sign me up for my free subscription.

Read about The Daily Galaxy editorial team here

Today’s stories range from Was Our Universe Created in a Laboratory to Mystery Signal Traced to a Nearby Galaxy’s Globular Cluster to Jupiter’s Moon Europa, ‘Chaos Terrains’ Could be Shuttling Oxygen to Ocean, and much more. “The Galaxy Report” brings you news of space and science that has the capacity to provide clues to the mystery of our existence and adds a much needed cosmic perspective in our current Anthropocene Epoch.

The Weird Gets Weirder–A Fast radio burst traced to a nearby galaxy’s globular cluster –The location is solved, but what’s causing it? asks Phil Plait for SyFy.  Or, as Phil writes: “One lesson astronomy teaches you is to never sit back and think, “Yeah, we totally understand this.”

Was Our Universe Created in a Laboratory? asks Harvard’s Avi Loeb –“Developing quantum-gravity technologies may elevate us to a “class A” civilization, capable of creating a baby universe.”

New Inner Ring  of the Milky Way Discovered reports The Max Planck Society –“Using a combination of observed stars and a realistic model of the Milky Way, scientists at the Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics have found a new structure in our home galaxy. Just outside the galactic bar, they found an inner ring of metal rich stars, which are younger than the stars in the bar. The ages of the ring stars can be used to estimate that the bar must have formed at least 7 billion years ago.”

Milky Way Galaxy is Far Older than Previously Thought–“How did the Milky Way’s structure come together? We know it didn’t all happen at once, but what were the different chapters in the galaxy’s life? What is the timeline of the Milky Way?” asks Phil Plait for SyFy Wire.

The gaming tech that may help find alien life, reports Richard Hollingham for BBC Future– An iconic Australian telescope has begun a major new search for ET – using some everyday tech to help locate signals.

China to launch Einstein Probe in 2023 to observe violent cosmic events, reports Space News –“A Chinese wide-field x-ray space observatory has passed a major review and is expected to launch next year to detect flashes from cataclysmic cosmic events. The Einstein Probe is expected to launch around mid-to-late 2023 to observe distant, violent interactions such as tidal disruption events—in which stars are pulled apart by supermassive black holes—supernovae, and detect and localize the high-energy, electromagnetic counterparts to gravitational wave events.”

On Jupiter’s Moon Europa, ‘Chaos Terrains’ Could be Shuttling Oxygen to Ocean reports U of Texas News. “The amount of oxygen brought into Europa’s ocean could be on a par with the quantity of oxygen in Earth’s oceans today.”

NASA’s next-gen space telescopes could dwarf Webb. By using liquid lenses? –They could even “eliminate the effect of gravity”, reports NASA. “What if there was a way to make a telescope 10 times – or even 100 times – bigger than before? What started as a theoretical question is now a series of experiments to see if fluids can be used to create lenses in microgravity. The next experiment is stowed on the International Space Station National Laboratory waiting for the arrival of Axiom-1 astronauts to try it out, and is part of Ax-1 Mission Specialist Eytan Stibbe’s research portfolio.”

Swarms of Black Holes at the Milky Way’s Heart? Maybe Not –Revisiting a controversial claim, astronomers are laying bare deep uncertainties about our understanding of galactic centers, reports Scientific American. “What lurks at the Milky Way’s heart? Astronomers have known most of the answer for decades. Just as in most large galaxies, a supermassive black hole sits at the core of our own island in the universe, enveloped in a swirling maelstrom of molecular clouds and stars. But something seems to be missing from this picture.”

Are Telescopes the Only Way to Find Dark Matter? asks Chanda Prescod-Weinstein for Scientific American –“If the invisible matter does not appear in experiments or particle colliders, we may have to find it in space.”

Scientists want to play chess with aliens as soon as we can find them –Scientists have designed a new message to spark conversation with alien civilizations, and that suggest a game of chess could keep the discussion going, reports New Scientist.

The History of the Milky Way Comes Into Focus, reports Christopher Intagliata for Scientific American –“When you look up at the Milky Way, you’re gazing at the galactic equivalent of Rome. A metropolis of stars, with layers upon layers of history—just like The Eternal City. So says the astronomer Hans-Walter Rix.”

Venus: Secrets of Our Strange Sister Planet –“The three recently selected space missions to Venus– VERITAS  DAVINCI and ESA’s EnVision — will embark scientific instruments to test the existence of ancient oceans on Venus,” reports The Daily Galaxy.

The ‘Gargantua’ Hypothesis: Does the Milky Way’s Supermassive Black Hole Impact the Galaxy’s Planets? asks Maxwell Moe for The Daily Galaxy. ” In 2019, Harvard astrophysicist Avi Loeb and NASA’s Jeremy Schnittman proposed that inhabited planets might exist around the black holes harbored at the center of most galaxies. Such planets are similar to the fictional water-world planet Miller, the closest planet in the star system orbiting the supermassive black hole, Gargantua, in the movie Interstellar. “

Astronomers see star enter a ‘Maunder Minimum’ for the first time, reports Physics World –“For the first time, astronomers have observed a star that has entered a state of low, or flat, activity – analogous to the famous Maunder Minimum that gripped the Sun during the latter half of the seventeenth century.

Recent Galaxy Reports:

Unmistakable Signal of Alien Life to What Happens if China Makes First Contact?

Clues to Alien Life to A Galaxy 100 x Size of Milky Way 

Cracks in Einstein’s Theory of Gravity to Colossal Shock Wave Bigger than the Milky Way 

Monster Comet Arriving from the Oort Cloud to Black Hole Apocalypse 

Enigmas of Stephen Hawking’s Blackboard to Why the Universe and Life Exist 

Einstein’s Critics to NASA Theologians Prepare for Alien Contact

Mind-Bending New Multiverse Theory to Dark-Matter Asteroids of the Milky Way 

Mysterious Expanding Regions of Dark Matter to Are Black Holes Holograms? 

Mystery of Stephen Hawking’s “Exxon Gravity” to Alien Life in Stellar Graveyards 

Read about The Daily Galaxy editorial team here

Phosphates, a key building block for life, was found to be generated in outer space and delivered to early Earth by meteorites or comets. All living beings need cells and energy to replicate. Without these fundamental building blocks, living organisms on Earth would not be able to reproduce and would simply not exist.

“On Earth, phosphine (PH3) is lethal to living beings,” said University of Hawaii researchers in their study, Did key building blocks for life come from deep space?. “But in the interstellar medium, an exotic phosphine chemistry can promote rare chemical reaction pathways to initiate the formation of biorelevant molecules such as oxoacids of phosphorus, which eventually might spark the molecular evolution of life as we know it.”

Venus: Secrets of Our Strange Sister Planet

Key Element in the Building Blocks of Life

Little was known about a key element in the building blocks, phosphates, until now. University of Hawaii at Manoa researchers, in collaboration with colleagues in France and Taiwan, provide compelling new evidence that this component for life was found to be generated in outer space and delivered to Earth in its first one billion years by meteorites or comets. The phosphorus compounds were then incorporated in biomolecules found in cells in living beings on Earth.

Phosphine on Venus: A Red Herring?

A September 2020 report that there may be phosphine gas in the Venusian clouds came with a stunning implication: extraterrestrial life. On Earth, phosphine is a chemical produced by some kinds of bacteria that live in oxygen-poor conditions. Its presence on Venus, announced by a team led by Cardiff University’s Jane Greaves, raised the possibility that there could be life in what has long been thought one of the most inhospitable environments in the solar system: a planet that’s covered in thick clouds of sulfuric acid, with an atmosphere that’s 96% carbon dioxide, and where the pressure at the surface is 100 times greater than Earth’s. Oh, and it experiences temperatures up to 471 °C—well above the melting point of lead.

Since the initial report, though, doubt about the finding has crept in. Three different preprint papers (none of which have been published in a peer-reviewed journal, although one has been accepted) were unable to find the same evidence of phosphine on Venus.

“Instead of phosphine in the clouds of Venus, the data are consistent with an alternative hypothesis: They were detecting sulfur dioxide,” said co-author Victoria Meadows, a University of Washington professor of astronomy. “Sulfur dioxide is the third-most-common chemical compound in Venus’ atmosphere, and it is not considered a sign of life.”

The breakthrough research is outlined in “An Interstellar Synthesis of Phosphorus Oxoacids,” authored by University of Hawaii Manoa graduate student Andrew Turner, now assistant professor at the University of Pikeville, and University of Hawaii Manoa chemistry Professor Ralf Kaiser in the September issue of Nature Communications.

According to the study, phosphates and diphosphoric acid are two major elements that are essential for these building blocks in molecular biology. They are the main constituents of chromosomes, the carriers of genetic information in which DNA is found. Together with phospholipids in cell membranes and adenosine triphosphate, which function as energy carriers in cells, they form self-replicating material present in all living organisms.

In an ultra-high vacuum chamber cooled down to 5 K (-450°F) in the W.M. Keck Research Laboratory in Astrochemistry at UH Manoa, the Hawaii team replicated interstellar icy grains coated with carbon dioxide and water, which are ubiquitous in cold molecular clouds, and phosphine. When exposed to ionizing radiation in the form of high-energy electrons to simulate the cosmic rays in space, multiple phosphorus oxoacids like phosphoric acid and diphosphoric acid were synthesized via non-equilibrium reactions.

Kaiser added, “The phosphorus oxoacids detected in our experiments by combination of sophisticated analytics involving lasers, coupled to mass spectrometers along with gas chromatographs, might have also been formed within the ices of comets such as 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko, which contains a phosphorus source believed to derive from phosphine.” Kaiser says these techniques can also be used to detect trace amounts of explosives and drugs.

“Since comets contain at least partially the remnants of the material of the protoplanetary disk that formed our solar system, these compounds might be traced back to the interstellar medium wherever sufficient phosphine in interstellar ices is available,” said Cornelia Meinert of the University of Nice (France).

Upon delivery to Earth by meteorites or comets, these phosphorus oxoacids might have been available for Earth’s prebiotic phosphorus chemistry. Hence an understanding of the facile synthesis of these oxoacids is essential to untangle the origin of water-soluble prebiotic phosphorus compounds and how they might have been incorporated into organisms not only on Earth, but potentially in our universe as well.

The Last Word–Indicator of Extraterrestrial life or Science Fiction?

“We have scientific evidence that PH3 can act under the right conditions on interstellar grains as a precursor to phosphorus oxoacids and also to alkyl phosphonic acids,” wrote Ralf I. Kaiser, Professor and Director of the W.M. Keck Research Laboratory in Astrochemistry in an email to The Daily Galaxy.  “It can even lead – once again under the right conditions – to glycerolphosphates on interstellar grains as established in our lab. That’s it. 

“Speculations that the presence of PH3 is an indicator of extraterrestrial life,” concludes Kaiser in his email, “has no foundation. These speculations do not help much to mature the field of astrochemistry but should be discussed in the context of science fiction.”

Image credit top of page: Comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko,  ESA/Rosetta/NAVCAM

Ralf I. Kaiser, University of Hawaii and Nature

Read about The Daily Galaxy editorial team here

Titan, shrouded in a golden haze of gaseous nitrogen, is a world of mystery. From Kraken Mare, an immense 1000-foot-deep body of methane nearly the size of all five Great Lakes combined,  to vast hydrocarbon sand dunes swept up by nitrogen winds and covering more than 13 percent of Titan’s surface, equivalent to the area of the United States. Beyond the dunes, a strange ice object wraps nearly halfway Saturn’s giant moon –the only moon in the solar system known to have a dense atmosphere.

“Titan is a giant factory of organic chemicals,” observed University of Arizona’s Ralph Lorenz, author of Titan Unveiled.  “We are carbon-based life, and understanding how far along the chain of complexity towards life that chemistry can go in an environment like Titan will be important in understanding the origins of life throughout the universe.”

These three mosaics of Titan below were composed with data from Cassini’s visual and infrared mapping spectrometer taken during the last three Titan flybys, on Oct. 28, 2005 (left), Dec. 26, 2005 (middle), and Jan. 15, 2006 (right). In a new study from Stanford University, researchers have shown how Titan’s distinct dunes, plains, and labyrinth terrains could be formed. (Image credit: NASA / JPL / University of Arizona)

Titan’s Enigmatic Landscape Formation 

The presence of these materials – whose mechanical properties are vastly different from those of silicate-based substances that make up other known sedimentary bodies in our solar system – makes Titan’s landscape formation enigmatic. By identifying a process that would allow for hydrocarbon-based substances to form sand grains or bedrock depending on how often winds blow and streams flow, Stanford University geologist Mathieu Lapôtre and his colleagues have shown how Titan’s distinct dunes, plains, and labyrinth terrains could be formed.

Titan, which is a target for space exploration because of its potential habitability, is the only other body in our solar system known to have an Earth-like, seasonal liquid transport cycle today. The new model, recently published in Geophysical Research Letters, shows how that seasonal cycle drives the movement of grains over the moon’s surface.

“Our model adds a unifying framework that allows us to understand how all of these sedimentary environments work together,” said Lapôtre, an assistant professor of geological sciences at Stanford’s School of Earth, Energy & Environmental Sciences (Stanford Earth). “If we understand how the different pieces of the puzzle fit together and their mechanics, then we can start using the landforms left behind by those sedimentary processes to say something about the climate or the geological history of Titan – and how they could impact the prospect for life on Titan.”

One of the Biggest Mysteries

In order to build a model that could simulate the formation of Titan’s distinct landscapes, Lapôtre and his colleagues first had to solve one of the biggest mysteries about sediment on the planetary body: How can its basic organic compounds – which are thought to be much more fragile than inorganic silicate grains on Earth – transform into grains that form distinct structures rather than just wearing down and blowing away as dust?

On Earth, silicate rocks and minerals on the surface erode into sediment grains over time, moving through winds and streams to be deposited in layers of sediments that eventually – with the help of pressure, groundwater, and sometimes heat – turn back into rocks. Those rocks then continue through the erosion process and the materials are recycled through Earth’s layers over geologic time.

Sediments of Solid Organic Compounds

On Titan, researchers think similar processes formed the dunes, plains, and labyrinth terrains seen from space. But unlike on Earth, Mars, and Venus, where silicate-derived rocks are the dominant geological material from which sediments are derived, Titan’s sediments are thought to be composed of solid organic compounds. Scientists haven’t been able to demonstrate how these organic compounds may grow into sediment grains that can be transported across the moon’s landscapes and over geologic time.

“As winds transport grains, the grains collide with each other and with the surface. These collisions tend to decrease grain size through time. What we were missing was the growth mechanism that could counterbalance that and enable sand grains to maintain a stable size through time,” Lapôtre said.

An Alien Earth Analog

The research team found an answer by looking at sediments on Earth called ooids, which are small, spherical grains most often found in shallow tropical seas, such as around the Bahamas. Ooids form when calcium carbonate is pulled from the water column and attaches in layers around a grain, such as quartz.

What makes ooids unique is their formation through chemical precipitation, which allows ooids to grow, while the simultaneous process of erosion slows the growth as the grains are smashed into each other by waves and storms. These two competing mechanisms balance each other out through time to form a constant grain size – a process the researchers suggest could also be happening on Titan.

“We were able to resolve the paradox of why there could have been sand dunes on Titan for so long even though the materials are very weak, Lapôtre said. “We hypothesized that sintering – which involves neighboring grains fusing together into one piece – could counterbalance abrasion when winds transport the grains.”

Global landscapes

Armed with a hypothesis for sediment formation, Lapôtre and the study co-authors used existing data about Titan’s climate and the direction of wind-driven sediment transport to explain its distinct parallel bands of geological formations: dunes near the equator, plains at the mid-latitudes, and labyrinth terrains near the poles.

Fine-Grain Sands –The Key Component

Atmospheric modeling and data from the Cassini mission reveal that winds are common near the equator, supporting the idea that less sintering and therefore fine sand grains could be created there – a critical component of dunes. The study authors predict a lull in sediment transport at mid-latitudes on either side of the equator, where sintering could dominate and create coarser and coarser grains, eventually turning into bedrock that makes up Titan’s plains.

Sand grains are also necessary for the formation of the moon’s labyrinth terrains near the poles. Researchers think these distinct crags could be like karsts in limestone on Earth – but on Titan, they would be collapsed features made of dissolved organic sandstones. River flow and rainstorms occur much more frequently near the poles, making sediments more likely to be transported by rivers than winds. A similar process of sintering and abrasion during river transport could provide a local supply of coarse sand grains – the source for the sandstones thought to make up labyrinth terrains.

An Active Sedimentary Cycle 

“We’re showing that on Titan – just like on Earth and what used to be the case on Mars – we have an active sedimentary cycle that can explain the latitudinal distribution of landscapes through episodic abrasion and sintering driven by Titan’s seasons,” Lapôtre said. “It’s pretty fascinating to think about how there’s this alternative world so far out there, where things are so different, yet so similar.”

The Last Word –Mathieu Lapôtre

“Titan’s atmosphere is thought to be conducive to the type of prebiotic chemistry that may have given rise to life on Earth,” wrote Lapotre in an email to The Daily Galaxy. “Titan’s modern landscapes are also to a great extent analogous to Earth’s landscapes, with lakes, rivers, and fields of sand dunes. In our study, we proposed a unifying hypothesis to explain how a global sedimentary cycle, driven by Titan’s climate, may generate the observed distribution of Titan’s landscapes. Such models, in turn, will allow us to decipher any sedimentary record on Titan once we get to explore Saturn’s moon in situ. Sedimentary rocks (which on Titan could be made of complex organics and ices) offer a prime target to better understand past environmental conditions, and thus, the history of Titan’s surface and atmosphere.”

Imzage credit top of page: Shutterstock License

Maxwell Moe, astrophysicist, NASA Einstein Fellow, University of Arizona via Mathieu Lapôtre and  Stanford University

The Galaxy Report newsletter brings you daily news of space and science that has the capacity to provide clues to the mystery of our existence and add a much needed cosmic perspective in our current Anthropocene Epoch.

Yes, sign me up for my free subscription.

Maxwell Moe, astrophysicist, NASA Einstein Fellow, University of Arizona. Max can be found two nights a week probing the mysteries of the Universe at the Kitt Peak National Observatory. Max received his Ph.D in astronomy from Harvard University in 2015.

“Exoplanet statistics tell us all stars are orbited by some kind of planetary systems. The planets in the Alpha Centauri system are about a billion years older than the Sun and the Earth. Thus, if life has emerged on an Earth-like planet in the Alpha Centauri system, that life has had about a billion years longer to evolve than life on Earth,”  wrote Australia National University astrobiologist and cosmologist, Charley Lineweaver, co-author of a new study about the sun-like stars closest to us, the α Centauri A/B binary, in an email to The Daily Galaxy. “To put that in perspective, about a billion years ago, our ancestors were amoeba-like creatures fond of engulfing paramecium-like creatures. However, we have very few reliable ideas about how life evolves in general.”

“In fact I don’t even think we know what life is,” Lineweaver notes in his reply. “Thus, our modeling of the Earth-like planets in the Alpha Centauri system can tell much about the elemental composition of those planets and how that composition is different from Earth’s.  But, making predictions about life there and its evolution will require much more data”

The Search for Planets is the Search for Life

It has been said that the search for planets is the search for life. In the search for habitable worlds beyond our solar system, the best opportunities may be found around the smallest, coolest M (or red-dwarf) hydrogen-burning stars. M dwarfs have a mere fraction of the sun’s mass and luminosity, but are more than 10 times as numerous in our Milky Way Galaxy, which could number tens of billions of worlds. Life, or at least complex / multicellular life, may not start right after the formation of the planet. So an older planet does not necessarily suggest that life would also be older.

“The Exoplanet Paradox” -Worlds With Low Oxygen May Be Teeming with Life Based on Early Earth History

“It is difficult to make any concrete predictions on the state of any potential life on another planet,” co-author Paolo Sossi at ETH Zurich told The Daily Galaxy: “However, what emerges from our study is that the composition of a rocky planet around α Centauri A/B, both on its surface and in its interior, would not be grossly different from that of the Earth. Therefore, the primary ingredients that rendered the emergence of life possible on the Earth may be rather more common on exoplanets than first thought.”

Based on early Earth history, worlds with low oxygen may be teeming with life. Proxima-b, only 4.24 light years away, receives 250 times more X-ray radiation than Earth and could experience deadly levels of ultraviolet radiation on its surface. How could life survive such a bombardment? Astronomers say that life already has survived this kind of fierce radiation, and they have proof: Homo sapiens. We do not yet know whether the sun-like stars closest to us, the α Centauri A/B binary, harbor an Earth-like planet, but thanks to new modeling work at EHT Zurich, we now have a good sense of what such a planet, should it exist, would look like and how it might have evolved.

Neighboring Alien Planets May Be in ‘Early-Earth’ Stage of Life -Carl Sagan Institute

The James Webb Space Telescope (JWST), successfully launched in December 2021, is projected to detect the atmospheres of rocky exoplanets transiting in front of M dwarfs orbiting within the habitable zone. The Extremely Large Telescope (ELT), currently under construction in Chile, will be set up to directly image rocky exoplanets around nearby sun-like stars by the end of the decade. Looking even further ahead, ambitious future space mission concepts are currently being explored, including the Large Interferometer for Exoplanets (LIFE), which targets habitable-zone rocky exoplanets and their atmospheres.

“Unlocking the Universe’s Secrets” –Astronomers Share Their Expectations About the James Webb Space Telescope

Now an international team led by ETH researchers present the results of such a study, based on the sun-like stars nearest to Earth, α Centauri A and α Centauri B. Reporting in The Astrophysical Journal, they provide a benchmark prediction of what an Earth-sized planet, should it exist in this system, would look like.

Hypothetical Rocky Planet in the α Centauri A/B system

The team, which includes ETH astrophysicists Haiyang Wang, Sascha Quanz and Fabian Seidler as well as Paolo Sossi at the Department of Earth Sciences, set out to estimate the elemental composition of a hypothetical rocky planet in the habitable zone of the α Centauri A/B system. Their modeling is based on the spectroscopically measured chemical compositions of α Centauri A and α Centauri B, for which a breadth of information is available for both rock-forming elements (such as iron, magnesium and silicon) and volatile elements (including hydrogen, carbon and oxygen).

“Mystery of the Blobs” –Hubble Reveals Dry and Lifeless Red Dwarf Planets

From these data they were able to project possible compositions of a hypothetical planetary body orbiting either of the stars. In this way, the researchers arrived at detailed predictions regarding the properties of their model planet, which they dubbed “α-Cen-Earth,” including its internal structure, mineralogy and atmospheric composition. These features, in turn, are of central importance to understanding its long-term evolution and potential habitability

Neighboring Alien Planets May Be in ‘Early-Earth’ Stage of Life -Carl Sagan Institute

If it exists, α-Cen-Earth is likely to be geochemically similar to our Earth, they predict, with a mantle dominated by silicates, but enriched in carbon-bearing species such as graphite and diamond. The capacity for water storage in its rocky interior should be equivalent to that of our home planet. According to the study, α-Cen-Earth would also differ in interesting ways from Earth, with a slightly larger iron core, lower geological activity, and a possible lack of plate tectonics. Researchers at the University of Oxford recently uncovered the importance of iron for the development of complex life on Earth – which also may hint at the likelihood of complex life on other planets.

How Important is Iron to the Origin of Life in the Universe?

Similar to the Archean eon, 4 to 2.5 Billion Years Ago

The biggest surprise, however, was that the early atmosphere of the hypothetical planet could have been dominated by carbon dioxide, methane and water—similar to that of Earth in the Archean eon, 4 to 2.5 billion years ago, when first life emerged on our planet.

The study stands out in that it includes predictions about volatile elements on a rocky exoplanet. While it is well established that the chemical composition of “terrestrial” planets (which are made up predominantly of rock and metal) generally reflects that of their host stars, this is true only for so-called refractory elements; that is, the main constituents of rock and metal. The correspondence breaks down for volatile elements—those that readily vaporize. This class includes hydrogen, carbon and nitrogen, which are key to understanding whether a planet is potentially habitable.

Model Connects the Chemical compositions of Sun-like Stars and Their Rocky Planets

During his doctoral research at the Australian National University in Canberra (supervised by Charley Lineweaver and Trevor Ireland, who are co-authors of the new paper), Wang developed the first quantitative model that connects the chemical compositions of sun-like stars and any rocky planets that surround them, for both volatile and refractory elements. Wang joined the Quanz group at ETH Zurich in 2019, where he has since developed the applications of this model further. More sophisticated models of the chemical relationship between star and planet are being developed in the group as well, through collaborations within the framework of the National Center of Competence in Research PlanetS.

Window of Opportunity from 2022 to 2036

The probability of actually finding an older sibling of our Earth—the α Centauri A/B system is  estimated to have an age of ~6-7 billion years—could hardly be more favorable. From 2022 to 2035, α Centauri A and α Centauri B will be sufficiently separated to benefit the search for planets around each of the stars thanks to reduced light contamination from the other. Together with the new observational power that can be expected in the years to come, there is legitimate hope that one or several exoplanets orbiting α Centauri A/B will join the nearly 5,000 exoplanets that have been discovered since 1995. University of Geneva astrophysicists Michel Mayor and Didier Queloz (who joined the faculty at ETH Zurich last year) announced the discovery of the first planet outside our Solar System orbiting a sun-like star in 1995 — for which they were awarded the 2019 Nobel Prize in Physics, shared with the Princeton University cosmologist Jim Peebles.

“Human Species Will Not Migrate to an Exoplanet” -Physics Nobel-Laureate Michel Mayor

A Benchmark

The work of Wang et al. provides a benchmark study for the field of exoplanet research, in terms of a detailed theoretical characterization of (hypothetical) habitable-zone rocky exoplanets around sun-like stars in the solar neighborhood. This is important in guiding future observations of such planets and in therefore maximizing the scientific return from the unprecedented, ground- and space-based astronomical infrastructures being developed. With all of this capability in place, we can look forward to a new chapter in discovery of planets and life in the cosmos.

The Last Word

“In 2001,” Charley Lineweaver told The Daily Galaxy, “I published a paper that estimated the age distribution of Earth-like planets in the universe. Here are the last two sentences from the abstract: The analysis done here indicates that three-quarters of the Earth-like planets in the Universe are older than the Earth and that their average age is 1.8 ± 0.9 billion years older than the Earth. If life forms readily on Earth-like planets—as suggested by the rapid appearance of life on Earth—this analysis gives us an age distribution for life on such planets and a rare clue about how we compare to other life which may inhabit the Universe. I think that the phrase ‘stage of evolution’ has very little meaning. Most people think it does”

“Our modeling doesn’t allude to ‘life’ on the hypothetical planet (alpha-Cen-Earth), while we indeed discuss in detail about the possible chemistry, interior structure, and geodynamics of the planet based on our data and model,” lead author Haiyang Wang wrote in an email to The Daily Galaxy. “With these aspects as discussed, you may reasonably draw some implications for the habitability of the planet. For example, from the geological perspective, we do see some unfavorable conditions for the planet to be habitable even if it is located in the habitable zone. More specifically, you may draw the fact that the system is 1.5-2.5 billion years older than our Solar System to the further reduced radiogenic heating from long-lived radionuclides in the model planet due to the decay of these radionuclides. By giving a number, it was ~ a quarter less in the model alpha-Cen-Earth compared to the Earth upon their formation, but it should be ~a half less at the present day.”

“A significantly reduced radiogenic heating, plus the evolutionary cooling of the planet itself, can imply that there is no sufficient energy to drive the mantle convection – or geological activity in a plain term, which is critical to the carbon-silicate cycle between interior, surface and atmosphere, and thus to habitability,” Wang explained. “Also, although our modelled ‘early’ atmosphere resembles that of the Archean Earth, such an atmosphere may also evolve to a Venus-like atmosphere (if the planet appears to the inner edge of the habitable zone) or even a Mars-like atmosphere (if the planet appears to the outer edge of the habitable zone), since there may be no sufficient replenishment of volatiles from interiors due to the sluggish carbon-silicate cycling.” 

Source: Haiyang S. Wang et al, A Model Earth-sized Planet in the Habitable Zone of α Centauri A/B, The Astrophysical Journal (2022). DOI: 10.3847/1538-4357/ac4e8c

The image at the top of the page is an ESO artist’s impression of the Proxima d, an exoplanet candidate identified earlier this year orbiting the faint red dwarf star α Centauri C. The work models a hypothetical exoplanet orbiting the much brighter Sun-​like stars α Centauri A and α Centauri B. (ESO/L. Calçada)

Maxwell Moe, astrophysicist, NASA Einstein Fellow, University of Arizona via A Lonely Universe, Charley Lineweaver, Haiyang Wang and EHT Zurich

Maxwell Moe, astrophysicist, NASA Einstein Fellow, University of Arizona. Max can be found two nights a week probing the mysteries of the Universe at the Kitt Peak National Observatory. Max received his Ph.D in astronomy from Harvard University in 2015.

The first black hole to be discovered was Cygnus X-1 in 1964. It comprises a black hole and a blue supergiant star orbiting each other. The black hole is accreting from the wind of the blue supergiant, forming a hot disk around the black hole that emits powerful X-rays. The mass of the invisible  companion is calculated to be 8-10 solar masses, much too large to be a neutron star.

Fast forward to 2020: a team led by European Southern Observatory (ESO) astronomers reported the closest black hole to Earth, located just 1,000 light-years away in the HR 6819 system. The results of their study, however,  were contested by an international team based at KU Leuven, Belgium. These two teams collaborated to report that there is in fact no black hole in HR 6819, which is instead a “vampire” two-star system in a rare and short-lived stage of its evolution.

Primordial Black Holes — “Does a Relic of the Big Bang Exist in Our Solar System?” 

Science Does Its Job!

The original study on HR 6819 received significant attention from both the press and scientists. Thomas Rivinius, a Chile-based ESO astronomer and lead author,, was not surprised by the astronomy community’s reception to their discovery of the black hole. “Not only is it normal, but it should be that results are scrutinized,” he says, “and a result that makes the headlines even more so.”

Rivinius and his colleagues were convinced that the best explanation for the data they had, obtained with the MPG/ESO 2.2-metre telescope, was that HR 6819 was a triple system, with one star orbiting a black hole every 40 days and a second star in a much wider orbit. But a study led by Julia Bodensteiner, then a PhD student at KU Leuven, Belgium, proposed a different explanation for the same data: HR 6819 could also be a system with only two stars on a 40-day orbit and no black hole at all. This alternative scenario would require one of the stars to be “stripped”, meaning that, at an earlier time, it had lost a large fraction of its mass to the other star.

Quark Star as Big as Our Solar System

“We had reached the limit of the existing data, so we had to turn to a different observational strategy to decide between the two scenarios proposed by the two teams,” says KU Leuven researcher Abigail Frost, who led the new study published in Astronomy & Astrophysics.

Tale of Two Scenarios

To solve the mystery, the two teams worked together to obtain new, sharper data of HR 6819 using ESO’s Very Large Telescope (VLT) and Very Large Telescope Interferometer (VLTI). “The VLTI was the only facility that would give us the decisive data we needed to distinguish between the two explanations,” says Dietrich Baade, author on both the original HR 6819 study and the new Astronomy & Astrophysics paper. Since it made no sense to ask for the same observation twice, the two teams joined forces, which allowed them to pool their resources and knowledge to find the true nature of this system.

“Window On the Big Bang”-Discovery of One of the Oldest Stars in the Milky Way

“The scenarios we were looking for were rather clear, very different and easily distinguishable with the right instrument,” says Rivinius. “We agreed that there were two sources of light in the system, so the question was whether they orbit each other closely, as in the stripped-star scenario, or are far apart from each other, as in the black hole scenario.”

VLT Technology: GRAVITY and MUSE

To distinguish between the two proposals, the astronomers used both the VLTI’s GRAVITY instrument and the Multi Unit Spectroscopic Explorer (MUSE) instrument on ESO’s VLT.

“GRAVITY and MUSE were both crucial to converging on our result,” Dr. Abigail Frost wrote in an email to The Daily Galaxy. “Two scenarios existed to explain spectral observations of HR 6819, she explained. “1) it was a triple system with a black hole and 2) it was a binary system with no black hole. For scenario 1, we would expect to see a bright star on a wide orbit around a close binary composed of an invisible source (the black hole) and another bright star.

“For scenario 2,” Frost explained in her email, “there was no black hole and the two bright stars in the system were orbiting each other closely instead and their light signatures were irregular due to a previous interaction. We couldn’t definitively choose between the two scenarios without detecting the stars and where they were more directly. This is what GRAVITY and MUSE let us do. With MUSE images we confirmed that no bright star was present on a wide orbit and with GRAVITY we confirmed that the two bright stars were orbiting each other on a short orbit. Furthermore, GRAVITY let us work out that the brighter star in the system was likely the Be star by seeing evidence of this discs rotation.

Binary System with No Black Hole

“These data proved to be the final piece of the puzzle, and allowed us to conclude that HR 6819 is a binary system with no black hole,” says Frost. 

“Beautiful and Dangerous Physics” -First Wolf-Rayet Star System to be Discovered in the Milky Way

“The two instruments, MUSE and GRAVITY, have complementary capabilities, the combination of which proved decisive for the success of our project,” wrote ESO astrophysicist Dietrich Baade in an email to The Daily Galaxy. “In the triple system with BH”, he explained, “the two stars could still appear very close to one another.  For instance, Venus and Jupiter can momentarily be very close in the sky but this does not mean that they are also physically close to each other.  When both planets move on in their orbits, they separate in the sky.  That is, we might have hit the two stars in the triple stars while they appeared close,  just by chance. We called this the “bad-luck” problem.”

The “Bad-Luck” Problem

“To overcome the bad-luck problem, we used GRAVITY on the VLTI”, Baade continued in his email. “While the MUSE instrument is fed by just one (eight-meter) unit telescope of the VLT, GRAVITY can combine the light from four telescopes.  We employed the 4 so-called auxiliary telescopes (ATs), each of which has a diameter of 1.8 m.  The ATs can be moved on rails.  For our observations, the ATs were separated by between nearly 60 meters and more than 130 meters, which is the maximum possible.  GRAVITY superposes the waves from the telescopes in a very sophisticated way.  This does not produce an image but so-called fringes.  The separation between these fringes corresponds to a path difference between the light coming from one telescope and that from another one by one wavelength.  From the fringe pattern, the separation of two objects can be measured with a resolution of better than 0.001 arcsec (1 mas).” 

“Our best interpretation so far is that we caught this binary system in a moment shortly after one of the stars had sucked the atmosphere off its companion star. This is a common phenomenon in close binary systems, sometimes referred to as `stellar vampirism’ in the press,” explains Bodensteiner, now a fellow at ESO in Germany and an author on the new study. “While the donor star was stripped of some of its material, the recipient star began to spin more rapidly.”

Secrets of Ancient Stars of the Milky Way’s Halo

“Catching such a post-interaction phase is extremely difficult as it is so short,” adds Frost. “This makes our findings for HR 6819 very exciting, as it presents a perfect candidate to study how this vampirism affects the evolution of massive stars, and in turn the formation of their associated phenomena including gravitational waves and violent supernova explosions.”

The newly formed Leuven-ESO joint team now plans to monitor HR 6819 more closely using the VLTI’s GRAVITY instrument. The researchers will conduct a joint study of the system over time, to better understand its evolution, constrain its properties, and use that knowledge to learn more about other binary systems.

13-Billion-Year-Old Milky Way Mystery: Massive Explosion Explains a Strange Star

Search for Stellar-Mass Black Holes Continues

As for the search for black holes, the team remains optimistic. “Stellar-mass black holes, observed as a hypernova explosion or as a gamma ray burst, remain very elusive owing to their nature,” says Rivinius. “But order-of-magnitude estimates suggest there are tens to hundreds of millions of black holes in the Milky Way alone,” Baade adds. It is just a matter of time until astronomers discover them. Physics World reported on 03 February 2022 the first unambiguous detection and mass measurement of an isolated stellar mass black hole wandering through the Milky Way, likely the remnant of a single massive (> 20 solar masses) star, which reached the end of its life and collapsed into a black hole. 

This research was presented in the paper “HR 6819 is a binary system with no black hole: Revisiting the source with infrared interferometry and optical integral field spectroscopy” (DOI: 10.1051/0004-6361/202143004) to appear in Astronomy & Astrophysics. 

Image at top of the page: artist’s impression of HR 6819 Credit: ESO/L. Calçada

Maxwell Moe, astrophysicist, NASA Einstein Fellow, University of Arizona via Dietrich Baade, Abigail Frost and  ESO

Maxwell Moe, astrophysicist, NASA Einstein Fellow, University of Arizona. Max can be found two nights a week probing the mysteries of the Universe at the Kitt Peak National Observatory. Max received his Ph.D in astronomy from Harvard University in 2015.